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ELEMENTS 

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Farm Practice 



PREPARED ESPECIALLY FOR TEACHING 
ELEMENTARY AGRICULTURE 



A COMPLETE REVISION AND EXTENSION OF "AGRICULTURE 
FOR YOUNG FOLKS" 



BY 

A. D. WILSON 

DIRECTOR OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND FARMERS' 
INSTITUTES, UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA 



AND 

E. W. WILSON 



THIRD EDITION 




Copyright, 1915, 1919 

WKBB PUBLISHING CO. 

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PREFACE 

This book has been prepared primarily for use in rural 
schools and for elementary classes in other schools, wherever 
it is desirable to study the plain and practical problems 
of the farm and home in their relation to daily life. 

The book deals largely with common farm practices, 
rather than with scientific principles. It is intended to 
throw some light upon and add interest to the things that 
are done on the farm from day to day. We feel that, if 
pupils can be interested and enabled to use the farms and 
the farm homes as laboratories in which to observe and 
apply the things learned at school, a great step will have 
been made toward bringing the school in close touch with 
the home life of the pupils. 

A study of agriculture in the rural schools elevates, in 
the minds of the farm youth, the calling of agriculture. 
A rather close study of a few farm problems impresses 
one with the great amount of knowledge and skill required 
to operate a farm successfully; and must convince one that 
a farm, rightly managed, affords as much opportunity for 
development as a professional or business career. 

We do not suggest that the topics shall necessarily be 
taken up in the order presented, but that each teacher 
begin with that portion of the book dealing with the parti- 
cular phase of farm work that is being done on the home 
farms of the pupils at the time the lesson is given. 

Each section is a complete reading lesson, followed by 
questions, examples, and exercises, which relate to the les- 
son. The questions may be answered orally or in the form 
of a language paper. The examples will enforce some of 
the main facts taught in the text. The exercises will require 
study and observation of local activities and will help to 
connect up the lesson with the practical things in the com- 
munity. This manner of presenting the various sub- 
jects was chosen so that the study of agriculture might 
replace a part of the regular reading, language and arith- 
metic lessons, and thus allow a study of agriculture 



without shortening the time of, or crowding out, any other 
subject. 

Many of the complex problems encountered in the 
management of the farm are discussed here with a view to 
simplifying them, so that any one may easily understand 
the principles involved. It may even prove valuable to 
farm managers, by enabling them to put into practice 
some of the better methods of soil and live stock manage- 
ment, and to see clearly the aspects of farming as a busi- 
ness. 

The idea of preparing these lessons originated with Mr. 
D. A. Wallace, editor of The Farmer, and we gratefully 
acknowledge his suggestions. 

We have freely used many of the agricultural books 
and bulletins in the library at the Minnesota Agricultural 
College, and have obtained much valuable information 
therefrom. 

Nearly all photographs used were made by Mr. H. D. 
Ayer, and the drawings were made by Mr. C. H. Welch 
and Mr. G. F. Krogh. 



University Farm, St. Paul, Minn., 
December, 1918. 



A. D. WILSON 
E. W. WILSON 



CONTENTS 

Chapter Page 

I Soils 9 

Origin, Classification, Sources of Plant Food, Available 
Plant P'ood. 

n Tillage 19 

Objects of Plowing, Time to Plow, Dry Farming, The 
Seed Bed, Planting. 

ni Fertilizers 31 

Need of Fertilizers, Fertilizers and Their Use, Animal 
Manures. 

IV Grain Crops 39 

Plant Structure, Good Seed, Selection of Good Seed, 
Wheat, Oats, Barley, Rye. 

V Cultivated Crops 60 

Corn, General Features of the Corn Crop, Shapes of Ker- 
nels of Corn, Sizes of Kernels of Corn, Parts of a Kernel 
of Corn, Testing Seed Corn for Germination, Corn Culture, 
Reasons for Cultivating Corn, Methods of Cultivating 
Corn, Selection of Seed Corn, How to Select Seed Corn, 
Storing Seed Corn, Methods of Storing Seed Corn, Corn 
for Silage, The Potato Crop, Planting and Cultivating 
Potatoes, Root Crops. 

VI Hay and Pasture Crops 97 

Importance of Hay Crop, Clover, Clover Roots and 
Bacteria, Curing Hay, Alfalfa. Other Common Hay and 
Pasture Crops. 

VII Miscellaneous Crops 116 

Millet, Rape, Field Peas, The Soy Bean, Cowpeas, Vetch, 
Rice, Sugar Cane, Fiber Crops, Cotton, Flax, Hemp. 

Vni Common Weeds and Their Eradication 123 

Weeds, Weed Seeds Common in Grain, Weed Seeds Com- 
mon in Grass and Clover, Classes of Weeds. 

IX The Garden 134 

A Garden. Plan of a Garden. Some Common Vege- 
tables. 

X Fruit on the Farm 143 

Value of Fruit in the Diet, Strawberries, Raspberries. 
Apples. 



Chapter Page 

XI Plant Diseases and Insect Pests 156 

Plant Diseases, Diseases of Potato and Cotton, Insects 
and Their Control. 

XII Live Stock 165 

Importance, Relation to the Soil, Classes, Care and 
Management. 

XIII Feeds and Feeding 173 

Source, Requirement, Selection, Kinds, Composition, 
Balanced Ration, Comparison of Feeds. 

XIV Horses 177 

Types and Breeds, Care and Management, Feeding. 

XV Cattle 192 

Types and Breeds, Care and Management, Feeding. 

XVI Dairying 212 

Milk and Its Care, Testing Milk, Testing Cows. 

XVII Sheep ' 220 

Types and Breeds, Care and Management, Feeding. 

XVIII Swine 229 

Types and Breeds, Care and Management,. Feeding. 

XIX Poultry, Birds and Bees 244 

Poultry on the Farm. Care of Poultry, A 100-Hen 
Poultry House, Feeding Laying Hens, Birds, Bees. 

XX Agricultural Engineering 259 

The Road Problem, Road Construction, Maintenance of 
Roads, Drainage, Irrigation, Farm Machinery, Farm 
Buildings, The Silo, Fencing, Building Fences. 

XXI Community Activities 284 

Boys' and Girls' Clubs, Farmers' Clubs, Co-operation, 
Marketing Butter, Marketing Eggs, School Gardens, 
County Agent. 

XXII The Farm Home 305 

What a Desirable Home Should Be, Windbreaks, Sanita- 
tion, Ventilation, The Farmstead. 

XXIII Farm Management 318 

Standing of the Farmer, Rotation of Crops, Classification 
of Field Crops, Rotation Maintains Vegetable Matter, 
Planning Farms, Live Stock Accounts, Account with a 
Cow, Marketing Dairy Products, Co-operation in Deliv- 
ering Milk or Cream. 

Appendix 349 

Bibliography, Tables, etc. 



ELEMENTS 

OF 

FARM PRACTICE 



CHAPTER I 

SOILS 

Soil, from the standpoint of the farmer, is that por- 
tion of the earth's surface in which plants grow. It is 
composed of small particles of rock, as grains of clay and 
sand, and decayed and decaying plants. 

Origin. — We are told that at one time, many, many 
years ago, the earth's surface was all solid rock, and that 
the wind and water and frost have been able to break off 
little pieces of rock to make soil. These little pieces of 
rock are called clay when very fine, sand when a little 
coarser than clay, and gravel when quite coarse. In the 
mountains, or where there are very large stones or boulders, 




Figure 1. — The action of vegetation, water and the weather gradually causes the 
disintegration of solid rock. 



10 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



large cracks will be seen in the rocks. These cracks are 
made by frost, by alternate expansion and contrac- 
tion caused by heat and cooling, or by the force of 
growing roots. When these cracks are formed little 
particles of rock are broken off. A strong wind will blow 
these particles about over the rocks, make them finer and 
wear off other particles. Rain and water running over 
the rocks do the same thing. The wind and water tend to 
gather the soil particles into crevices in the rock and other 
sheltered places. When several of these little particles 



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Figure 2. — Soil well filled with Inimiia. 

have been gathered in one place, there is the beginning of 
a little patch of soil. When this little patch of soil becomes 
moist from rain or melting snow, and the warm sun shines 
on it, some kind of a plant, like moss, will start to grow. 
At first these little patches are very small and plants can 
grow only a very little while. When the plants die they 
are added to the soil. Then other small pieces of rock are 
added and still other plants grow and die and are added 
to the little patch of soil. This has been going on for many 
thousands of years, so that nearly the whole surface of the 
earth is covered with soil. 



SOILS 11 

Parts of Soil. — All soils are then composed of two parts, 
the part made up of little particles of rock that we call 
sand or clay or gravel, and the part made up of decayed 
or decaying plants. This part is called organic matter, 
vegetable matter or humus. Wherever crops are to grow 
it is necessary that the soil have both particles of rock 
and vegetable matter. In a sand pit there is no vegetable 
matter in the soil and plants grow very poorly or not at 
all. In an old drained lake-bed, where the soil is made 
up almost entirely of vegetable matter (peat), crops do not 
grow well. In farming it is very important that there be 
a proper combination of these two parts. The part made 
up of particles of rock is called mineral matter. The part 
made up of dead and partly decayed plants is called organic 
matter. Plants contain both mineral and organic matter. 
Questions: 

1. What is soil? 

2. How has soil gradually been formed from solid rock? 

3. What are the two important parts of soil? 
Arithmetic: 

1. If there are 2 lbs. of ash in 100 lbs. of dry vegetable matter, 
how many lbs. of ash in one ton (2,000 lbs.) of vegetable matter? 

2. If there is j-i lb. of vegetable matter in 10 lbs. of soil, how 
many pounds of vegetable matter in 100 lbs. of soil? 

3. How many pounds of vegetable matter or manure would be 
required to cover 12 acres, if six tons were applied to each acre? 

CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS 

In the study of soils one finds that there are many 
different kinds. To enable us to talk and write about 
soils, and to understand what is meant, it is necessary to 
classify soils so that everyone will know what is meant 
when a certain kind of soil is named. The most common 
names applied to soils are gravel, sand, loam, clay and 
peat. 

Gravel is the coarse part of the soil. The particles may 
vary in size from that of kernels of wheat to stones as large 
as hen's eggs. Such soil is not as a rule productive. The 
particles are so coarse that they hold very little moisture 
or plant food. Soil containing a large percentage of gravel 
is called very poor or very light. 



12 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

Sand is the name applied to soil with particles much 
finer than gravel but still comparatively coarse. The 
particles may be as large as grains of common granulated 
sugar or cornmeal. Sandy soil is much more productive 
than gravelly soils. The particles being finer, they hold 
moisture better and usually contain more available plant 
food. 

Clay is the name applied to the very fine particles of 
soil. Clay is often as fine or finer than wheat flour. Gen- 
erally clay soils are the most productive soils, Ijecause the 
grains are very, very fine. A given quantity of clay will 
hold much more water than the same quantity of sand 
or gravel. Clay soil is very sticky when wet, while sandy 
soil is not. 

Loam is a name applied to soil that has a liberal amount 
of vegetable matter mixed with either sand or clay or both. 
If a soil has a very large proportion of clay, it is called a 
clayey loam. Nearly all the soils have a mixture of sand 
with clay, but the proportion of each naturally varies. 
On this account there are all kinds of mixtures, varying 
from nearly all sand and very little clay, to nearly all clay 
and very little sand. 

Sandy Soils. — Soils containing a large percentage of 
sand are known as sandy soils, or sandy loam soils. They 
do not hold as much moisture as clay soils. Such soils, 
therefore, warm up more quickly in the spring than do 
clay soils, and crops grow more quickly. If it does not 
rain for several days or weeks, crops on such soils are likely 
to be injured for lack of moisture. Sandy soils contain 
less plant food than clay soils and give it up more readily. 
On this account clay soils are regarded as better; but, 
if sandy soils are well handled, they produce good 
crops and are more easily plowed and cared for than clay soils. 

Clay Soils. — Soils containing a large percentage of clay 
are known as clay soils, or as clay loam soils. Because 
the particles of clay are very small, there is more surface 
exposed in a given amount of clay soil than in the same 
amount of sandy soil. Soil holds water on the surface of 
the particles, on which account a clay soil holds much more 
water than a sandy soil. The fact that a soil with fine 



SOILS 13 

particles has more surface exposed than soil with coarser 
particles is illustrated by an apple. The surface of a whole 
apple is represented by the peeling. If the apple is quartered, 
or cut into many pieces, each cut increases the exposed 
surface of the apple by the two newly cut surfaces. The 
apple is no larger. The exposed surface represented by 
the peeling is the same. If a grain of sand is pulverized 
to form many particles of clay, the amount of surface will 
be greatly increased. Because clay holds moisture better, 
it warms up more slowly in the spring. Crops start more 
slowly, but are much less likely to be injured by drouth. 
Questions: 

1. What do you understand by the terms, gravel, sand, clay? 

2. Tell the difference between a sandy loam, and a clay loam. 

3. Explain why clay soil holds moisture better than sandy soil. 
Arithmetic : 

1. If a cubic foot of sandy soil weighs 90 lbs. and holds 17% of 
its weight of water, how many pounds of water will it hold? 

2. If a cubic foot of clay soil weighs 75 lbs. and holds 30% of 
its weight of water, how many pounds of water will it hold? 

SOURCES OF PLANT FOOD 

Plant Food in the Air. — Plants as well as animals must 
have food; and it is as important to know what plants 
need and how to supply their needs as it is to know how to 
feed animals properly. 

The greater portion of the plant food comes from the 
air rather than from the soil. All those substances in a 
plant called carbohydrates as starch, sugar and fibrous 
tissue, are made entirely from carbon dioxide gas and 
water. The plant takes in carl)on dioxide from the air, 
through its leaves, and water from the soil, through its 
roots. When the water and the carbon dioxide are brought 
together in the leaves of the plant, and the sun shines on 
the leaves, the sun and the green coloring matter (the 
chlorophyll) in the leaves cause the water and the carbon 
dioxide to unite. The oxygen and hydrogen in the water 
unite with the carbon in the carbon dioxide. These three 
elements form starch. The oxygen in the carbon dioxide 
is liberated and given off to the air. In this way plants 
purify the air for animals to breathe and animals exhale 
air containing carbon dioxide, which furnishes food for 



14 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 




plants. Some of the starch formed in a plant is slightly 
modified during the growth of the plant and forms fibrous 
tissue and sugar. Examine kernels of wheat and corn 
and a potato to see what a very large part is starch. The 
white part of them all is very largely starch. It is seen 
that by far the greater portion of our common plants does 
not come from the soil, as is usually supposed, but is formed 
from the poisonous gas, carbon dioxide, 
from the air, and water from the soil. 
Plant Food in the Soil. — A small por- 
tion of every plant comes from the plant 
food in the soil. A fairly good idea of the 
proportion of any plant that is taken from 

Ti -1 • 1 J • 1 1 1 • xu 1 A Figure 3. — The ap- 

the soil IS obtamed by burnmg the plant, proximate composition 
The ashes remaining represent nearly the llz]{^ll^,^ I^thl'gtufen 
whole amount that came from the soil, are composed of min- 

mi • ,• l^ 1 n- iiii erals taken from the sou. 

This portion, though small, is absolutely The rest is composed of 
necessary for plant growth. One may ^r;.\°^d'^wS ^'""^ *^' 
Hken the plant food taken from the soil to 
salt eaten by animals. It furnishes a very small part of the 
food required, but is absolutely necessary. Hence the impor- 
tance of having a fertile soil that will furnish these sub- 
stances as needed by the growing crop. 

Plants are able to get food from the soil only when 
it is in a soluble form — that is, when the plant food will 
dissolve in water as sugar dissolves in tea. 

Soluble Plant Food. — When a soil contains plentj^ of 
soluble plant food it is said to be fertile. When plant 
food becomes soluble in the soil it is dissolved in the soil 
water. This water containing the plant food, surrounds 
the fine roots and root hairs of the plant, and passes through 

their thin walls just as 
nourishment enters the 
blood vessels in the ani- 
mal body. In this way 
plants get their food, 
soluble organic matter and 
soluble mineral matter, 

Figure 4. — A diagram showing the compos- from the Soil. They take 
t^ono^a potato. From Minnesota Bulletin -^ ^^^ pj^^^ ^^^^ ^j^j^ 




SOILS 15 

large quantities of water. The water is given off from the 
leaves into the air, leaving the plant food taken from the 
soil in the plant. To show plainly that liquid passes up 
through the stem of a plant and into the leaves, set a 
branch from a house plant into a bottle of red ink or col- 
ored liquid, and watch results. It is seen that large 
amounts of water are needed by growing plants. Scientists 
have shown that to produce one pound of dry product, as 
hay or corn fodder, a plant takes from the soil and gives 
off to the air from 200 to 500 pounds of water. 

Since plants use water from which to make starch and 
other similar substances, as well as large quantities to take 
up the other plant food, it is very necessary that they be 
supplied with sufficient water at all times. 

Soil Moisture. — There is in most places enough moisture 
from rainfall or irrigation to produce good crops, but it 
is not always available at the right time; and often, dur- 
ing the growing season, there may be a shortage for several 
weeks. Unless land is in good condition to hold moisture, 
and well cultivated to prevent evaporation from the sur- 
face, it may become too dry, and then the plants will not 
grow well or may die. Farmers can avoid this difficulty 
largely bj^ keeping vegetable matter in the soil, which holds 
moisture like a sponge; and by thorough cultivation of 
the surface, which prevents, to a large extent, the loss of 
soil water by evaporation. By cultivation the soil is loosened 
at the surface and the water in the ground cannot rise 
readily by capillarity, because it is separated from the sun 
and wind by this layer of loose soil. 

It is in such times that the skillful farmer, or the man 
who knows best how to handle his soil, can get good crops, 
when farmers who do not know or care, but just "trust 
to luck," fail. 
Questions: 

1. Of what substances are plants largely composed? 

2. Tell how these substances are converted into plant tissue. 

3. From what source does a plant get a small but essential por- 
tion of its food? 

Arithmetic: 

1. How many pounds of wheat are produced on an acre yielding 
20 bus.? (A bu. of wheat weighs 60 lbs.) 



16 



ELEMENTR OF FARM PRACTICE 



2. How many pounds of corn are produced on an acre yielding 
40 bus.? (A bu. of shelled com weighs 56 lbs.) 

3. How many pounds of potatoes are produced on an acre yield- 
ing 150 bu.? (A bu. of potatoes weighs 60 lbs.) 

AVAILABLE PLANT FOOD 

Amount of Plant Food. — Most soils contain enough 
plant food to grow crops for many years, several hundred 
perhaps, but this plant food is not present in the soil in 
a soluble form and it is well it is not. If it were soluble 
it would be dissolved by the water during a heavy ram, 
and as the water flowed off over tlie fields and into the 
river it would carry with it the plant food, thus leaving 
the soil unproductive. This may be better understood if 
one takes two glasses of water, puts a spoonful of sand 
into one and a spoonful of sugar into the other, and stirs. 
Then carefully pour the water out of both glasses. The 
sugar being soluble has been dissolved and will pass out 




Fifiure 5. — (1) A piece of sod showing the grass roots. (2) A lump of earth taken 
from a field that has grown corn continuously for fourteen years and which ia 
badly depleted of vegetable matter. 



SOILS 17 

of the glass with the water. The sand is not soluble and 
will remain in the glass. 

Only a very small amount of soluble plant food is needed 
to grow a crop; but while the amount is small, it is absolutely 
necessary to have enough of it to supply the plants. 

How Plant Food Is Made Soluble. — There are many 
different ways of making the insoluble plant food in the 
soil soluble. These are Nature's ways, and the change 
takes place naturally in soils under favorable conditions. 
But farmers can do a great many things to assist Nature 
in this work. 

One very important condition of soil, which favors mak- 
ing plant food soluble, is to keep the soil well supplied with 
vegetable matter as it was when the farmer first broke 
up the virgin sod. Get a small piece of sod from a new 
piece of breaking, and a handful of soil from an old field 
that has grown nothing but corn or grain for a great many 
years. Notice that the first is tough and is held together 
by many fine roots interwoven among the soil grains. The 
handful of earth from the old field contains little except 
the particles of soil. 

The plant roots, as well as other parts of plants found 
in soil, are called vegetable matter. When this vegetable 
matter is partly decomposed, it is called humus. 

Decay of Vegetable Matter. — When the weather is 
warm and the soil moist, the vegetable matter in the soil 
begins to decay. The vegetable matter is composed of 
plants, and is made up of the things that growing plants 
need for food. When the vegetable matter decays, the 
substances of which it is composed are set free or liberated, 
thus making plant food soluble. The vegetable matter 
decaying in the soil not only liberates tl^ plant food of 
which it is composed, but aids very much in making some 
of the insoluble plant foods in the mineral particles of soil 
soluble. It also aids by making the soil warmer, as heat 
is given off by a decomposing manure pile, and by giving 
off an acid, called an organic acid, because it is formed from 
organic matter. This acid acts on the soil grains and dis- 
solves a small amount of mineral matter off their surfaces. 



18 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

Plant food is thus made soluble much more rapidly in 
a soil that contains a good supply of vegetable matter, as 
new sod land, than in an old soil from which much of the 
vegetable matter has been used. 

Many soils that have produced grain and corn a great 
many years without the addition of manure have become 
nearly depleted of vegetable matter; and, while they usually 
contain plenty of plant food, it is in an insoluble form and 
plants cannot make use of it. 

Adding Vegetable Matter. — A farmer can add vege- 
table matter to his soil by growing on it once in every few 
years such crops as clover, timothy and other grass crops. 
These crops grow more than one year and consequently 
have a large root system. These roots add a large supply 
of vegetable matter; so several crops of corn or grain can 
be grown successfully following a crop of grass. The 
application of barnyard manure is another way by which 
the farmer can put vegetable matter in the soil and thereby 
increase its producing power. 
Questions: 

1. What do you understand by the term vegetable matter in the 
soil? 

2. In what way does vegetable matter assist in making plant 
food soluble? 

3. In what ways may a farmer add vegetable matter to the soil? 
Arithmetic: 

]. How many lbs. of water in 20 bus. of wheat? 
(Note: There are 12 lbs. of water in 100 lbs. of wheat.) 
?:. If 70% of wheat is starch, how many lbs. of starch in 20 bus.? 
3. It requires 500 lbs. of water to produce one pound of hay. 
How much water is required to produce a ton of hay? 

Exercises: 

1. If possible, find some large rocks and note the cracks in them, 
and the little depressions where there is a small accumulation of soil. 
Note the growth of moss or other forms of plant life. Write out a 
description of what you have seen. 

2. Burn some dry plants and note that a small part of them is 
left. We call it ashes. It is mineral matter. The part that disap- 
pears in the burning process as smoke and gas is the vegetable matter. 

3. Get samples of gravel, sand and clay. Put a very small amount 
of each on a piece of white paper. Notice how they look and feel. 



CHAPTER II 
TILLAGE 

OBJECTS OF PLOWING 

Plowing Not Monotonous.— Did you ever wonder as 
you watched men plowing, why they were doing it? Or 
did you ever think that plowing must be very monotonous 
work — going forth and back, forth and back, across the 
field day after day? Plowing is not unpleasant work. In 
fact, most men like to plow. It is a quiet, peaceful work, 
and after the rush and anxiety of harvest time, it really 
seems restful. It is certainly not monotonous work, if one 
knows why one is plowing, and how and when to plow. 

Plowing Mellows the Soil. — One of the chief reasons 
for plowing is to stir the soil and make it loose and mellow, 
so the air can circulate through it, and so the moisture 
can settle down into it. When the soil has settled all sum- 
mer and had the heavy rains beating on it, it becomes 




Figure 6. Good plowing done with a breaker. 



20 



ELEME^'TS OF FARM PRACTICE 



packed and hard, and must be loosened to prepare it for 
a new crop, if we desire to meet the conditions of nature. 

Plowing saves moisture for the next crop. When the 
ground is packed, as it is when the crops are removed in 
the fall, it is so hard that when it rains much of the water 
runs off over the surface instead of settling down into the 
soil. Plowing overcomes this difficulty, and by loosening 
the surface, any moisture that may be in the subsoil (the 
soil below the plowed furrow) is retained, because this 
water cannot readily pass up through the loose plowed 
soil. If the ground were not plowed, the soil moisture 
would rise to the surface by capillarity, just as oil rises in 
a lampwick, and when it got near the surface the sun and 
wind would evaporate it. 

Plowing Destroys Weeds. — It is natural for all good 

soils to be producing some- 
thing at all times during 
the growing season. As 
soon as the crop is re- 
moved (and very often 
before) weeds begin to 
grow. If no precaution is 
taken, they will go to seed, 
and thus cause trouble 
later. Plowing stops their 
growth. It also turns up 
new soil to the light, and 
weed seeds which have 
been too deep in the soil 
to grow, are brought near 
the surface where they can 
grow. If the plowing is 
done in the fall these 
weeds start to grow, but 
do not have time to pro- 
duce seed before they are 

Figure 7. — First year clover growing in stub- killed by irOSt. 

ble. Such a crop is better pasture than Plowing DeStTOyS In- 

many cattle are furnished, and IS a benefit * iv^ »»"*& .^y^^i^vj^ **» 

to the soil. It would be unwise to plow such SCCtS. jManymsectS, SUCll 

a field early in the fall, if one has stock i ' j . 4. 

that can use the feed. aS gl'aSS hopperS and CUt- 




TILLAGE 21 

worms, are checked by plowing in the fall. The mature 
insects lay their eggs in the ground in the fall, and if the 
eggs are not disturbed, they hatch out the next spring, and 
it is the young from these eggs that do the damage. Fall 
plowing disturbs the eggs and many of them are destroyed. 

Plowing Helps to Liberate Plant Food. — We learned 
in another lesson that plants require food in a soluble form; 
that is, food in such condition that it will dissolve in water. 
Plowing assists in making portions of the soil soluble, by 
pulverizing it, breaking up the soil particles, exposing new 
surfaces, and allowing the sun, wind and water to act on 
it more freely than they can act on unplowed land. 

Plowing Covers Manure and Crop Residue. — It is gen- 
erally regarded as good practice to haul manure directly 
from the barn to the field before it has rotted, as much 
of its value is saved in this way. If a rather heavy dressing 
is applied, it is troublesome in harrowing, sowing and cul- 
tivating, unless it is plowed under out of reach of the harrow 
and other tools, but still where the plant roots can reach it. 

The plowing under of manure or vegetable matter saves 
much of its value from being lost in various ways as it would 
be if it were left exposed. 
Questions: 

1. Explain how plowing saves moisture. 

2. In what two ways does plowing destroy weeds? 

3. How does plowing destroy insects? 

4. How does plowing assist in liberating plant food? 
Arithmetic: 

1. A plow turns a furrow 14 inches wide. How many furrows 
must one plow to plow a strip 8 rods wide? 

2. How far will a team travel in plowing with a single 14-in. 
plow a field 8 rods wide and 40 rods long? 

3. How many acres of land in a field 8 rods by 40 rods? 

TIME TO PLOW 

Condition of Soil. — The greatest problem that a plow- 
man has to solve, is to determine the proper time to plovv. 
Both the season of the year and the condition of the soil 
must be considered. If a heavj^ clayey soil is plowed 
when it is too wet, the lumps turned up become, when dry, 
hard clods, which it is very difficult to pulverize into a good 
seed bed. This is especially true if plowing is done in the 



22 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

spring. Plowing clayey land that is wet is not objection- 
able, however, if done in the fall and the field is not sown 
until spring, as the thawing and freezing during whiter 
aid in pulverizing any clods that may form. Light sandy 
or loam soil may be plowed when wet without any serious 
trouble. 

Time of Year to Plow. — As a rule early fall plowing is 
preferable, as it allows the ground to become settled before 
the crop is sown, thus making it less likely to become too 
dry during the summer. Early fall plowing also destroys 
weeds by turning up new seeds, which start to grow in the 




Figure 8. — Rape growing in a stubble field. Such a crop may be raised for fall 
feed at a very small cost per acre. Rape is excellent feed for any kind of stock 
but milch cows. One might be justified in neglecting to plow such a field early. 

fall, and are soon killed by frost, while, if the same seeds 
were turned up late in the fall, the plants would grow in 
the spring and trouble the crops. Fall plowing also facili- 
tates spring work, and, by leaving the soil exposed to the 
elements, aids in liberating plant food. 

When Not to Plow in Early Fall. — If some catch crop 
is growing in the stubble field, as clover, rape or rye, that 
can be used to advantage for fall pasture, fall plowing — at 
least early fall plowing— is not always advisable. The 
green crop and pasturing will prevent largely the growth 
of weeds, and the green crop checks to some extent the 



TILLAGE 23 

loss of moisture. Thus at least two reasons for early plow- 
ing are removed. The green crop, whether plowed under 
or pastured off", would add considerable vegetable matter 
to the soil, which would be of more value to the next crop 
than the plant food that would be liberated by the early 
fall plowing. As the country becomes more thickly settled, 
and better methods of farming are practiced, farmers will 
have fewer fields lying idle during the fall. Many farmers 
now get from 50c to $4.00 worth of feed per acre from their 
fields after the main crop has been harvested. This in- 
come is almost entirely net profit, and cannot be over- 
looked as more intensive systems of farming are made 
necessary by higher priced land. 

Fall Feed. — On many farms pastures are very poor dur- 
ing the fall and cattle must be fed dry feed or, what more 
often follows, allowed to get poor or to run down in milk 
flow. Such conditions are very undesirable, and in most 
years unnecessary. Clover sown with the grain crop in 
the spring, or rye sown in the stubble as soon as the grain 
crop is removed, or rape sown at almost any season of the 
year, will in ordinary years furnish an abundance of fall 
pasture. Good fall pasture not only furnishes cheap feed 
during the fall, but gives stock an excellent start for winter. 
While the old habit of getting all the land plowed in the 
fall was an excellent one, and necessary when grain was 
the only crop, there are now many instances where much 
better results would be obtained were some of the fields 
made to produce fall pasture rather than left bare during 
the fall, in which condition more or less plant food is lost 
by such exposure. If catch crops are grown on the field so 
that early fall plowing can not be done, it is better to plow 
late in the fall than to wait until spring. Most crops do 
better on fall plowing than on spring plowing. Spring 
plowing, being loose, is likely to become too dry. 

No Best Time. — There is no best time to plow. The 
time must be determined by conditions. It is hoped that 
those who read this lesson will think about the things 
mentioned, and observe what the best farmers in their 
neighborhoods are doing. They will then be better able 
to decide intelligently when to plow. 



24 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

Questions: 

1. What danger is there in plowing a heavy clay soil when wet? 

2. What is to be gained by early fall plowing? 

3. Give some reasons which may make it advisable to defer 
plowing until late in the fall. 

Arithmetic: 

1. 4 lbs. of clover seed per acre is sufficient to sow with a grain 
crop for fall pasture. What is the cost per acre of such pasture if 
clover seed is worth 15c. per pound? 

2. If one acre of such pasture furnishes feed for a cow for 20 
days, the cow giving % pounds of butter fat per day, how much butter 
fat is produced per acre? What is it worth at 28c. per pound? 

3. Three pounds of rape seed per acre is sufficient to sow with a 
grain crop for fall pasture. What is the cost per acre of such a crop 
if rape seed is worth 18c. per pound? 

4. One acre of such rape will feed 10 sheep for 1 week. They 
will gain 2 lbs. per week each. How many pounds of mutton are pro- 
duced per acre? What is it worth at 7c. per pound? 

DRY FARMINQ 

Dry farming is a term applied to the culture of land 
where the rainfall is not sufficient to grow crops in the or- 
dinary way. It consists in deep plowing, packing the lower 
part of the furrow slice, and the maintenance of a surface 
mulch by persistent cultivation of the surface soil to pre- 
vent evaporation. In many sections in the western and 
central western part of the United States, the rainfall is 
less than 20 inches per year. Ordinary methods of farm- 
ing have not proved profitable in such places, because the 
moisture was not sufficient to ensure a crop. The aim in 
dry farming is to so handle the soil that every bit of mois- 
ture that falls will be taken up by the soil, and the loss 
of moisture by evaporation will be as small as possible. 
In some sections where the rainfall is fairly plentiful, — that 
is, from fifteen to twenty inches per year, — a crop is grown 
every year. In other places, where the rainfall is only ten 
to fifteen inches, a crop is grown every other year. 

Deep plowing, or plowing from eight to twelve inches 
deep, provides a loose mellow soil into which any moisture 
that falls quickl}^ settles. It provides also much more room 
for the storage of moisture than is provided by shallow plow- 
ing, and allows the deep rooting of crops grown so they 
can better get the moisture stored in the soil. 



TILLAGE 



25 



Subsurface packing is another important feature of dry 
farming. It is done by means of specially made heavy 
implements that are drawn over the field and pack the 
lower part of the furrow slice, but leave the surface mellow 
and loose. This packing increases the capacity of the soil 
to hold moisture, and packs the furrow slice against the 
subsoil so that any moisture in the subsoil may be brought 
up into the furrow slice by capillarity. 

A surface mulch consists of from two to four inches of 
loose, fine soil over the surface of the field. It is main- 




Figure 9. A subsurface packer. 

tained by persistent disking and harrowing. Every rain 
packs this surface soil down, and, if left packed down, the 
moisture in the lower part of the furrow slice or in the 
subsoil will be raised to the surface by capillarity. If 
brought to the surface the sun and wind will evaporate it, 
and it will be lost. Harrowing at once after a rain loosens 
up this surface soil, making of it a surface mulch through 
which the moisture cannot rise. 
Questions: 

1. What do you understand by the term, "dry farming"? 

2. What is the reason for deep plowing in dry fanning? 

3. What do j^ou mean by the term, "surface mulch"? Of what 
use is it? How is it maintained? 



26 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

Arithmetic: 

1. How many gallons of water fall on an acre when there is a 
rainfall of 1 inch? (Note: There are 43,560 sq. ft. of surface in an 
acre. There are 231 cu. in. in a gallon.) 

2. If a cubic foot of soil will hold 3 gallons of water by capillarity, 
how many gallons will an acre of soil to a depth of 2 feet hold? How 
many inches of rainfall would this represent? 

THE SEED BED 

Yields. — The way in which the seed bed is prepared 
has much to do with the success of the crop grown. Where 
farms are large there is a strong tendency to rush through 
the spring work and get in a large acreage of crops, but often 
without due preparation of the seed bed. Such hasty work 
at seeding time is very often the chief cause of a poor harvest. 

A yield of twenty-five bushels of oats per acre leaves 
the farmer no profit, as it costs as much to raise them as 
they are worth. A yield of forty bushels per acre leaves 
considerable margin for profit. Twenty-five acres of oats 
yielding forty bushels per acre are much more profitable 
than forty acres yielding twenty-five bushels per acre, as 
the same amount of oats is raised with less land and labor. 

A good seed bed must be moist (not wet), firm enough 
so that it will not dry out quickly, loose enough to permit 
air to enter the soil, and warm enough to cause the seed 
to germinate. The farmer cannot regulate the weather, 
but he can do many things to assist in regulating these 
conditions, and such is the object of tillage. 

Air is needed in the soil to start the seed to germinate 
and to supply the oxygen necessary in the chemical ac- 
tion which must take place in the soil, to make the plant 
food in the seed available for the growing plantlet and to 
break down plant food in the soil on which the plantlet 
can feed after it has used up the food stored in the seed. 
Cultivation with a disk or harrow stirs up the soil and lets 
the air circulate through it. 

Moisture is needed in the soil — (1) to dissolve the plant 
food in the seed planted, so that the little plantlet can make 
use of it; (2) to supply the growing plant with water; (3) 
to assist in the chemical action in the soil which liberates 
plant food; (4) to cany the plant food to the plant. Cul- 



TILLAGE 



27 



tivation of the soil helps to retain moisture by checking 
evaporation from the surface by means of the surface mulch 
and by loosening up the surface soil so that any rain that 
falls will settle into it instead of running off over the surface. 
Need of Heat. — Seed will not germinate, neither will 
plants grow, unless the soil has a certain amount of heat 
in it. Heat is necessary before chemical action can begin. 
One can not make the weather warmer, but cultivation of 
the soil, keeping it loose on top so as to check evaporation 









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^2s^KK^bmH^^^^^^^^|HHMI| 








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I^C; 


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ll^.'^K 


^^^^^^fe'^"*^^^ 


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iffl^^^K 


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Figure lu. — Proparing the seed bed by disking. 

from the surface, helps to warm up the soil. The circu- 
lation of air, promoted by good tillage, is also quite a factor 
in warming the soil in the spring. The air at the surface 
of the ground becomes warmed by the sun, and if it can 
enter the soil it helps to warm that also. 

Methods of Preparing the Seed Bed. — The best seed 
bed is formed by plowing land in the fall, so that the por- 
tion turned over by the plow will have a chance to settle 
down upon the soil beneath (the subsoil). Then moisture, 
which is usually present in the subsoil, may move up 
into the furrow slice by capillary action, as oil rises in a 
lampwick. This moisture is often necessary to supply 



28 ELEMEXTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

growing crops during times when it does not rain for several 
days. Fall plowing, disked and harrowed to loosen the 
surface, makes an excellent seed bed. In other words, 
a firm, mellow so^ below, covered by two or three inches 
of loose, fine soil is the condition desired. 

If land must be plowed in the spring, very thorough 
harrowing is necessarj'- to work the soil up fine and to assist 
in firming the furrow slice so as to form good capillary 
connection with the subsoil. 

Questions: 

1. What is the principal work of the farmer during April? 

2. What are the essential conditions of a good seed bed? 

3. Why is air needed in the soil, and how may it be secured? 

4. Why is moisture needed in soil? How may it be retained? 

Arithmetic: 

1. If wheat is worth 90c. per bu. and it costs 15c. per acre to 
harrow land, how many times can one afford to harrow an acre of land 
to increase the yield two bushels? 

2. If wheat is worth 90c. per bu. and it costs 35c. per acre to 
disk the land, how many times can one afford to disk an acre of land 
to increase the yield two bushels per acre? 

3. Field A yields twenty-five bushels of oats, field B yields forty 
bushels of oats. How many more dollars' worth of labor can one afford 
to put on field A than on field B, if oats are worth 35c. per bushel? 

PLANTING 

Time to Plant. — Crops that are not easily killed by 
frost, as wheat and oats, are usually the first crops sown. 
Seeds of these crops will germinate at a comparatively 
low temperature, as low as from 41 to 50 degrees F. The 
soil usually reaches this temperature in the spring about as 
soon as one can begin disking and harrowing, and land 
that is well disked and harrowed reaches this temperature 
earlier, as shown in the preceding lesson. It is usually 
wise to sow these crops as early as possible and thus avoid 
the danger from rust, smut and hot winds that are more 
likely to injure late sown grain crops. 

Barley may be sown early, but it is more liable to in- 
jury from frost. Experiments show that the best yields 
are obtained by sowing barley a week or ten daj^s later than 
the first seeding of wheat or oats. This is also the most 
convenient time, as it permits one to sow the other grains 



TILLAGE 



29 



first, and then to prepare the barley land. Barley may 
be sown as late as the last of May, if necessary, in the 
case of low, wet land; but earlier sowing is better. 

Depth to Plant. — There are two ways to sow grain. 
First, by a broadcast seeder, which scatters the seed on 
top of the ground, where it is covered by cultivating or 
by harrowing. In this process some seeds are left on 
the surface uncovered, while others are covered as deep as 
the land is cultivated. This causes the seeds to germinate 
unevenly; and, if the land becomes too dry, much of the 




Figure 11. — Seeding with a drill. The dragging chains cover the seed-!, wliich 
are placed in the ground at a uniform depth. 

seed on the surface will not grow, while, if the soil is too 
wet, much of the deeply sown seed will not grow. The 
better method of sowing is with a drill which deposits 
all the seed at a uniform depth and at any depth desired. 
In early seeding one should plant quite shallow, from one 
to two inches, as the soil is warmer near the surface and the 
seed and small plants should have all the heat available. 
On the other hand, seed sown too shallow will not grow 
well if the weather remains dry for some time, as the sur- 
face of the soil dries out too quickly and leaves the plant 



30 ELEMENTS OF FAKM PRACTICE 

improperly supplied with moisture. Later in the season 
when the soil is warmer and plants grow more quickly, 
it is well to plant the seed deeper, from two to three inches, 
thus giving the plants a better chance to get moisture. 

The depth to plant should vary also with the soil. In 
light, dry soil one should sow deeper than in heavy, wet soil. 
Questions: 

1. What three conditions must a seed have before it can grow? 

2. What can you say of time of planting? 

3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of shallow and 
deep planting? 

Arithmetic: 

1. If the average yield of wlieat in the United States is 14.8 
bus. per acre, what is the average value of an acre of at 85c. per bushel? 

2. If it costs $13.00 to produce an acre of wheat, what is the 
average profit per acre? (See example No. 1.) 

3. If the average yield of oats in the United States is 30 bus. 
per acre, what is the value of an average acre of oats at 38c. perbu.? 

4. If it costs $13.00 to produce an acre of oats, what is the aver- 
age profit per acre? 

Exercises: 

1. Visit fields in your neighborhood where plowing is being done 
and be sure you can answer the following questions: Are the furrows 
straight? How deep is the land plowed? Are weeds and stuV)ble 
being covered? Is the land well pulverized or is it lumpy? Is the 
plowed land higher or lower than the unplowed land? At what time 
of year is most of the plowing done in your neighborhood? Do some 
men plow better than others? If, so, in what ways? 

2. To see how water moves in the soil by capillarity, put the end 
of a lump of sugar into water or coffee and notice movement of the liquid 
through it. Take another cube of sugar and put on top of it all the 
finely pulverized sugar you can get to stay on. (Granulated sugar 
will not do.) Touch the bottom of the loaf to the water. Note rise 
of water through cube and note that it stops when it gets to the pul- 
verized sugar. This shows you how proper cultivation of the soil 
may save moisture by preventing it from reaching the surface where 
it would be evaporated. The water Mill pass up through the pulverized 
sugar in a few minutes because the sugar will di.ssolve. It would not 
do this if you had finely pulverized soil in place of sugar because the 
soil would not dissolve in the water. 

3. It will be an interesting experiment to plant short rows of 
seeds at different times and at different depths and to watch results. 
Early in the spring plant four short rows of wheat or oats with ten or 
fifteen good kernels in each row. In the first row plant the seeds 
one, two, three and four inchas deep respectively in the different rows. 
Note the time required for the plants to come up, the number of plants 
that grow, and the strength of the plants. Repeat the experunent 
later when the soil is •warm. 



CHAPTER III 

FERTILIZERS 

Need of Fertilizers. — If a soil is cropped year after year 
and no plant food is added, the supply in the soil will be- 
come exhausted, or there will be such a small amount left 
that the crops cannot get enough food to grow well and 
will produce very little or fail entirely. There is a number 
of different materials that may be applied to the soil to 
supply the plant food needed. Such materials are called 
fertilizers. Barnyard manure is the most common fer- 
tilizer used. Materials that are purchased for fertilizer, 




Figure 



12. — Piistiirintr. T.ivc? slook pan ho kept ordinarily nioro cheaply on past- 
ures than in any other way. Pasturing also improves the soil. 



such as lime, ground phosphate rock, sodium nitrate, waste 
from slaughter houses, etc., are called commercial ferti- 
lizers, because they are bought and sold. 

Plant Food. — Plants, like animals, have to be fed, and, 
like animals, they need more than one kind of food. There 
is a number of different elements which are needed for the 
complete growth of plants. The soil, air, and water in the 
soil furnish most of the elements needed in such great 
abundance that there is no danger of the supplj'^'s ever 
becoming exhausted. There are only four elements that 
are likely to be lacking even in soils that have been cropped 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



for many centuries. So it is necessary to learn only about 
the ones that are most likely to be required. 

Names.^The four elements that are most likely to 
become limited in the soil are nitrogen, phosphorus, potas- 
sium and calcium. The names of these elements are not 
hard to pronounce or learn. Every boy and girl should 
know these names, what part each element plays in the 
growth of plants, and a practical means of maintaining 




Figure 13. — A crop of alfalfa, one of the best farm tertilizers. 

a supply of them in the sgil. Boys and girls who have 
studied physiology and have learned how to pronounce 
and to know the meaning of such words as occipital, parietal, 
cerebellum, etc., or who have learned to pronounce and 
know the meaning of such words as subtrahend and min- 
uend in arithmetic will not have difficulty in learning to use 
the words, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and calcium. 

Nitrogen is needed by all plants. Nearly 80% of the 
air is nitrogen, and this is the chief source of nitrogen for 
the soil. The problem of the farmer is to get the nitrogen 
out of the air and into the soil. It is present in the soil 



FERTILIZERS 



33 



chiefly in combination with other elements in the form of 
vegetable matter. As soon as the vegetable matter in the 
soil decomposes (rots), the nitrogen is made soluble or goes 
off into the air as gas, so that it is very easily lost. A soil 
that is lacking in vegetable matter is likely to be lacking 
in nitrogen. A good supply of nitrogen in the soil stim- 
ulates the growth of plants. A dark green color of the 
growing plants generally indicates plenty of nitrogen. 
When the foliage turns yellow before it is ripe, there is 
usually a scarcity of nitrogen. Nitrogen is an essential 
element of protein. The amount in normal soils varies from 
2,000 lbs. to 10,000 lbs. in the upper seven inches. 

Phosphorus is needed by all plants. It is needed es- 
pecially in crops like grain and corn that mature seeds. 
The presence of plenty of phosphorus in the soil aids plants 
in the production of seed. The kernels of wheat or rye 
or corn are likely to be plumper and heavier where there is 
a good supply of phosphorus. A lack of sufficient phos- 
phorus in the soil results in a smaller yield of grain, and the 
grain produced is not so good in quality. Selling seeds, 
such as wheat, barley, rye, or corn from the farm removes 
from the farm comparatively large amounts of phosphorus. 
The amount of phosphorus in normal soils varies from 1 ,000 
lbs. to 2,000 lbs. per acre. When one considers the compar- 
atively small amount of this element in the soil, and the 
amounts removed by ordinary crops, as shown in the fol- 
lowing table, one is impressed with the need of adding to 
the supply in the soil before it gets too low. 

Approximate Amount of Fertility Removed by Crops. 



Crop 


Amount 
bushels 


Nitrogen 
pounds 


Phosphorus 
pounds 


Potassium 
pounds 


Wheat 


20 


22 


4.1 


5.8 


Oats 


40 


28 


4.1 


6.6 






Barley 


30 


27 


5.2 


6.1 


Corn 


50 


31 


6.1 


9.6 


Potatoes 


150 


32 


6.3 


42.0 


Clover hay .... 


2 tons 


80 


8.5 


56. 



34 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

Potassium is needed by all crops. It is especially 
needed in hay crops, in the straw of grain crops, and in po- 
tato and root crops. It is potassium that gives stiffness 
to the straw of grain crops and enables it to stand up and 
mature a crop. Where there is a scarcity of potassium the 
sti'aw of grain crops is likely to be weak. Potassium is 
removed from the farm rapidly by such crops as 
hay, potatoes and sugar beets. The amount of potassium 
in ordinary soils varies from 20,000 to 50,000 lbs. per acre. 

Calcium is used in a very limited extent by plants, as 
plant food, except by legumes, such as alfalfa, clover, peas, 
etc. Its most important use in the soil is to overcome 
acidity or sourness. When a soil is sour, bacteria neces- 
sary for the liberation of plant food are likely to be lack- 
ing, especiall}^ those bacteria associated with the accumu- 
lation of nitrogen in the soils and its conversion into forms 
available for plants. A sour soil is often indicated by the 
growth of such weeds as sorrel and horsetail fern, or l)y 
its failure to produce good crops of legumes. It is also 
easily detected by several simple tests. Many soils have 
an abundance of lime, while others are seriously in need of 
it. The amount of calcium in normal soils varies from a 
few hundred pounds to a great many tons per acre. 

Questions: 

1. What do you understand by the term fertiUzer? By com- 
mercial fertihzers? 

2. Name the four elements that are likely to be lacking in cul- 
tivated soils, and tell at least one special purpose for which each is 
needed. 

Arithmetic: 

1. If a soil contains 1,000 lbs. of phosphorus per acre, how many 
100-bu. crops of corn can it produce, without the addition of more 
phosphorus? If 1 bu. of corn removes 12-100 lbs. of phosphorus? 

2. If nitrogen is worth ISc. per lb. as a fertilizer, what is the 
value of 2 tons of clover hay to plow under? If it contains 2 lbs. of 
nitrogen per 100 lbs.? 

3. If a soil contains 50,000 lbs. of potassium per acre, how many 
100-bu. crops of corn can it produce without exhausting the potassium, 
if 1 bu. of corn removes 2-10 lbs. of potassium? 

FERTILIZERS AND THEIR USE 

Costs. — We have learned that there are four elements 
needed by plants, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and 



FERTILIZERS 35 

calcium, the supply of which is likely to become depleted 
in ordinary soils unless care is taken to maintain them. In 
the last lesson we learned that a 20-bushel yield of wheat 
removed 22 lbs. of nitrogen, 4.1 lbs. of phosphorus and 5.8 
lbs. of potassium. Nitrogen costs about 18 cents per pound, 
phosphorus about 6 cents per pound and potassium about 
6 cents per pound, when purchased in the form of com- 
mercial fertilizers. To replace the elements removed by 
20 bushels of wheat would cost at these prices about S4.55 
or 22^ cents per bushel of wheat. If it were necessary 
to purchase all these elements used, it would make a 
very heavy tax on wheat raising. 

Nitrogen is present in the air in very large quantities. 
The farmer has a way at his command by which he can 
gather this nitrogen and add it to the soil at practically 
no cost. This is done by growing legumes, such as clover, 
alfalfa, etc. (See Chapter VI ) A good rotation of crops 
(See Chapter XXIII) in which clover or some other legume 
crop is included one or more times in from three to seven 
.years will provide for the maintenance of a sufficient supply 
of nitrogen. Barnyard manure also contains liberal amounts 
of nitrogen and its application to the soil every few years 
is very helpful in maintaining a supply of nitrogen. It is 
not necessar}^, therefore, under ordinary farm conditions, 
to purchase nitrogen. It is verj^ important in connection 
with the maintenance of nitrogen that a liberal supply of 
vegetable matter be maintained. When it becomes neces- 
sary to purchase nitrogen for a fertilizer, it may be secured 
in the form of sodium nitrate, a product taken from mines, 
ammonium sulphate, a by-product in the manufacture of 
gas, dried blood and other by-products from large packing 
plants or slaughter houses. 

Phosphorus. — It will l)e noted in the last lesson that 
phosphorus is present in the soil in comparatively small 
quantities. It is removed from the farm when either 
grain or live stock is sold. The addition of manure adds 
to the supply, especially if mill feed is purchased. Often 
the elements of fertility may be more economical Ij^ pur- 
chased in the form of feed to be fed to live stock and the 
manure applied to the soil than to purchase them in the 



36 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

form of commercial fertilizers. Maintaining a supply of 
vegetable matter in the soil is important in aiding the 
liberation of phosphorus contained in the soil. Even after 
one has taken all these precautions to conserve phosphorus, 
there is almost certain to come a time when the supply of 
available phosphorus in the soil will be so small as to seri- 
ously limit the yield of crops. This is one of the elements 
that will no doubt have to be furnished to the soil in the 
form of commercial fertilizers. The more important sources 
of phosphorus fertilizers are ground bones, either steamed 
or raw from slaughter houses, and mineral phosphate mined 




Figure 1 !. — Cattle and clover maintain soil fertility. 

in many places in the United States. This is most com- 
monly used in a form called acid phosphate. In this form 
the phosphorus is easily available for plants. Raw, finely 
ground phosphate rock is now used in quite large quantities. 
This is a cheaper form of phosphorus, and, where a good 
supply of vegetable matter is maintained, the decomposi- 
tion of the vegetable matter in the soil renders the phos- 
phorus in the raw rock soluble, so that the plants can use it. 
The finer the raw phosphorus rock is ground the more easily 
is the phosphorus made soluble. 

Potassium is much more abundant in most soils than 
phosphorus or nitrogen. Most of the potassium used by 
plants is in the stems or straw. Most of the straw and hay 
produced on farms is used as feed or bedding for live stock 



FERTILIZERS 37 

and returned to the soil in the form of manure. For these 
reasons there are very few soils that are deficient in potas- 
sium. In fact, in general farming it is seldom necessary to 
use fertilizers containing potassium other than barnyard 
manure especially if a practical rotation of crops is followed. 
Occasionally it pays a farmer to apply potassium for hay 
crops, root crops and potatoes, as these crops use very large 
amounts of this element. When it is necessary to apply 
potassium fertilizers, the most common kinds sold com- 
mercially are some of the mineral potassium salts, such 
as kainit, muriate of potash, a product refined from the 
mineral potassium salts, and wood ashes. 

Calcium is generally quite abundant, but occasionally 
there are soils that have very little or no calcium. Where 
there is insufficient calcium the soil is sour and crops do not 
succeed. This condition cannot be corrected by applying 
manure. Calcium in some form must be supplied. Cal- 
cium is commonly spoken of as lime. There are several 
different forms in which calcium may be applied. Com- 
mon quicklime (the lime used for plastering) may be used, 
or finely ground limestone or slaked lime or marl will also 
accomplish the same result. 

Complete Fertilizers. — There are many companies that 
prepare fertilizers ready for use on the farm. These fer- 
tilizers usually contain some calcium, some nitrogen, some 
phosphorus, and some potassium, also a considerable amount 
of other material called filler to make up the bulk and 
weight. Such fertilizers are called complete fertihzers. It 
is seldom economical to use such fertilizers, because it is 
seldom necessary to apply all of the elements to a soil and 
the elements not needed, if applied, are wasted. As stated 
above, the cheapest and most practical way of adding nit- 
rogen to the soil is to grow clover and other legume crops. 
Most soils, in fact nearly all soils, have enough potassium, 
so that it is not necessary to add more. Phosphorus is the 
element most likely to be needed and the cheapest way to 
supply that is to buy a fertilizer containing only phosphorus. 

Animal Manure. — Except in the case of soils that may 
be seriously impoverished of some particular element of plant 
food, it has been found that the total crop products from 



38 ELEMENTS OF FARM PKAL'TICE 

fields that have received animal manure, exceed those from 
land treated with commercial fertilizers or which were not 
manured. Animal manure is preferable because 

(1) it is produced at a mininmm of expense, 

(2) it adds innnediatcly available plant food to the soil, 

(3) it provides humus and acid solvents that assist soil 
decay, 

(4) it produces effects for years after application. 

Questions: 

1. Describe the most practical means of maintaining a supply of 
nitrogen in a soil for ordinary fanning? 

2. Which of the four elements named in this lesson is most 
likely to become exhausted? How may it be replenished? 

3. Is much potash removed from soil with ordinary crops? Why? 

4. What is a complete fertilizer? Is it usually economical? 

5. What are the advantages of animal manures? 
Arithmetic: 

1. If 50 bus. of corn remove 31 lbs. of nitrogen, 6.1 lbs. of phos- 
phorus, and 9.6 lbs. of potassium, how much would it cost to replace 
these elements at 18c. per lb. for nitrogen, and 6c. per lb. for potas- 
sium and phosphorus? 

2. If an acre of normal soil contains 4,000 lbs. of nitrogen, 2,000 
lbs. of phosphorus and 35,000 lbs. of potassium, what is the total 
value of these elements per acre at prices used in E.xample 1? 

3. If acid phosphate contains 6% phosphorus and a .50-bu. 
crop removes 6.1 lbs. of phosphorus, how many pounds of acid phos- 
phate would one have to apply to supply the needs of the crop? 

Exercises: 

1. Find some field or fields in the neighborhood to which some 
kind or kinds of fertilizers have been applied. Make note of the kind 
of fertilizer used and, if possible, find a field part of which was fertil- 
ized and part imfertilized. Note the growth of the crop on the fer- 
tilized and also on the unfertilized part. Compare the color and 
height of plants, also the thickness of growth and, if possible, find out 
the yields on both parts of the field. 

2. Ascertain the contents of the commercial fertilizers offered 
in your market and compare their values with prices asked for them. 



CHAPTER IV 
GRAIN CROPS 

PLANT STRUCTURE 

Parts of Plant. — All the more important plants, in which 
the farmer is chiefly interested, have four distinct parts, 
roots, stems, leaves, and flowers. Plants, like animals, 
vary greatly. This fact is true of plants in any one variety, 
such as wheat plants or pansy plants. This habit of varia- 
tion has made possible the development of the great variety 
of plants that are grown to supply the many different needs 
of man. In some plants one part has been developed for 
use, in other plants other parts. For example, in the 
turnips the root is eaten; in asparagus the stems; in lettuce 
the leaves; and in wheat the seeds. 

Roots. — There are two kinds of roots, fibrous roots and 
tap roots Roots grow in the soil and take up moisture 
and plant food. The moisture in the soil and the plant 
food with it pass through the thin walls of the roots and 
very fine root hairs, or branch roots. Roots also hold the 
plant in place and tend to keep it erect. 

Stems. — These may grow erect like corn or wheat or may 
trail along the ground like squash or cucumber vines, or 
they may climb up some other ol)ject, like peas or beans. 
The function or work of the stem is to bear the leaves and 
blossoms and to provide a means for the plant food to go 
to and from the leaves. Plant food and moisture circulate 
in the plant somewhat similar to the circulation of blood 
in the body of an animal. In some cases, like potatoes, 
for example, some of the stems grow under ground; in fact, 
the potato (tuber) that we eat is simply an enlarged stem. 
This fact is indicated by the eyes on the potato, which arc 
the buds from which branches may grow. 

Leaves have been called the stomach of the plant, 
because it is in the leaves that the plant food from the soil 
and from the air are brought together and changed into 
the compounds which make up the plant. From 300 to 



40 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

500 lbs. of moisture must pass through a plant to produce 
one pound of dry matter in the plant. This water must 
all be given off into the air by the leaves, hence the need 
of so many leaves. A tree, or a plant, usually has a very 
large leaf area exposed. It is interesting to estimate this 
leaf area on various plants, by counting the leaves on a 
part of the plant, measuring the size of an average leaf 
and then computing the total, remembering that there are 
two sides to each leaf. Each leaf has many little openings 
or pores on its under surface through which air is taken 
into the leaf and moisture and oxj'gen given off. 

Flowers are borne on the stems of plants. Their func- 
tion is to start and develop the seed which enables the 
plant to reproduce itself. In fact, the production of seed 
seems to be the function of the whole plant, but it is the 
blossom that starts the seed and as soon as the seed is 
started the blossom falls. 

Questions: 

1. Name the four principal parts of a plant. 

2. Name at least two plants in which the edible part comes 
from the roots. From the stem? From the leaves? From the seed? 

3. Tell the principal uses to plants of roots and leaves. 

Arithmetic: 

1. If 400 ll:)s. of water are given off (transpired) ])y clover plants 
to produce 1 lb. of dry matter, how many pounds will be transpired 
from an acre of clover yielding 3 tons of hay containing 85% of dry 
matter? 

2. Count the leavesi on an average sized hill of potatoes Meas- 
ure an average sized leaf and find the total leaf surface expo.sed per 
hill. Per acre. If a potato plant is not available, use a geranium 
plant instead. 

GOOD SEED 

Importance. — We must have good kernels of grain from 
which to raise a good crop, just as we must have good 
cows from which to raise good calves. One of the 
laws of Nature which we must consider in raising plants 
and animals is that "Like produces like." If we want to 
raise large horses we must have large horses from which 
to raise them. If we want to raise dairy cows we must 
keep dairy cows or cows which have the ability to produce 
large amounts of milk. Likewise, if we wish to produce 
good plants, we must sow good seed. There are small, 



GRAIN CROPS 41 

large, shrunken and plump grains. It is important to 
know which we shoukl plant. 

Test of Good Seed. — Good seed of an}^ kind of grain 
must have at least three qualities: 

(1) It must be pure, that is, free from weed and other 
grain seed. 

(2) It must be well matured, plump and heavy. 

(3) It must germinate well so as to produce strong 
plants. 

You will notice by examining a small sample of grain 
(place a small sample on a piece of white paper) that there 
is a great difference in the size, character and shape of the 
kernels. (Separate the sample into good and poor lots.) 
Would you care to plant the poor seed? You might be 
interested to plant ten of the very best, large, heavy seeds 
and ten of the poorest, small, light seeds in a box of pure 
sand. Moisten the sand and keep the box in a warm room. 
See which seeds produce the larger, stronger plants. 

Parts of a Seed. — A seed is made up of three parts: 

(1) A small plantlet or germ, the embryo, inside of 
each kernel which will, when the seed is placed under 
favorable conditions as to heat, air and moisture, grow 
and produce a plant; 

(2) The food material stored about the embryo, to feed 
it until it has developed a root system so as to be able to 
get food from the soil; and 

(3) The seed coat on the outside for protection. 
It is evident that a large, plump kernel or seed will have 

a stronger, larger germ than will a small or shrunken seed, 
and will also have more food for the little plantlet, so the 
plantlet will get a better start before it must obtain its food 
from the soil. 

Select Seed from Best Plants. — Another reason for 
selecting the large, plump seeds is because it is reasonable 
to expect that they grew on good, strong, healthy plants. 
There are a great many unfavorable conditions with which 
plants have to contend, such as diseases like smut, rust 
and blight; unfavorable weather conditions, as cold or wet 
or drought or heat; also poor soil conditions. It is evident 
that some plants are better able to withstand such conditions 



42 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 




■S**t/g/vtn- 



than others. Those that do withstand such unfavorable 
conditions and are best adapted to the soil and climate 
will be likely to do better and produce better and more 

perfect seed than will 
other plants. The heavi- 
est and plumpest seeds 
are selected when seeds 
from the best and most 
viji;orous plants are se- 
cured. Hence, when a 
farmer selects the heavy, 
plump seeds raised on his 
own farm, he not only 
gets good, strong seed, 

Figure 15.— DiuKriuii of a Fanning Mill, show- but SCcd adapted tO his 

int; a gooil method of grading seed grain. „^j] n^^A r.lim.itp 

The blast blows the lighter kernels over the ^Uil ^"<-l tllHlcl A.. 
end of screen No. 3, in with the market HcaVy SCCd grOWn \X\. 

grain. The heavy kernels fall on this screen. ,, , f ,-, 

The smaller of these go through into market SOmC Oilier part 01 tUe 

grain, leaving only the heavy large kernels (joulltrV is USUallv llCaVV 
to go into the seed grain. -^ . J "^ 

i)ecause it grew under 
favorable conditions rather than ))ccause it came from es- 
pecially strong jilants. The heaviest home-grown s(hh1 is often 
better to sow than still heavier seed from other localities. 
Questions: 

1. What law of Nature must be considered in raising plants 
and animals? 

2. What are the three qualities that all good seed must possess? 

3. What two kinds of seed can you usually find, if you examine 
a good, pure sample of grain? 

4. What are the three parts of a seed, and the purpose of each? 

5. Why is heavy, plump seed better than small or shrunken? 
Arithmetic: 

1. Land at the Minnesota Experiment Station, seeded with 
heavy, plump seed oats, yielded 9.5 bus. per acre more than similar 
land seeded to light weight oats. What was the additional income 
per acre from heavy weight seed if oats are worth 3Sc. per bushel? 

2. If 2 bus. of heavy seed oafs (sown on one acre) give an 
increased yield of 9.5 bus. what would be the increased yield from one 
bushel of heavy weight seed oats? 

3. If one bushel of heavy weight seed oats gives a yield of 4.5 
bus. more than is secured from a l)ushcl of light seed, what is the 
value of one bushel of heavy weight seed when oats are worth 38c. 
per bushel? 

Note: If the light weight seed is worth 3Sc. j^er bushel, the heavy 
gradt^d seed will be worth 3.Sc. plus 4.5 times 3Sc, 



GRAIN CROPS 43 

SELECTION OF GOOD SEED 

Pure Seed. — It is well worth while for farmers to raise 
only pure varieties of grain, or grain that contains no other 
kind or variety of seed. Seed of Blue Stem wheat should 
be free from oats, rye, and l)arl(\y as w(^ll as from other 
kinds of wheat. Pure seed grain may be secured by pur- 
chasing a small amount of pure seed and using care in 
growing it so that it will not beconu; mixed; or, if one prefers 
to start with tiu^ seed on the farm, one may go through a 
small patch of grain when it is headed out in the field and 
pick out and destroy the other kinds of grain, thus getting 
a small patch pure, from which a start in pure seed may 
be made. 

As a rule the very best seed that one can get for the 
main crop is from grain that has been grown on the farm 
for several years and that has given good yields. Such 
grain, when graded and ck^aned, so that only the very best 
is saved for seed, usually gives excellent seed. 

The two general principles by which grain can be gi-aded, 
separated or cleaned of weed seeds, by the use of the fanning 
mill, are by size and shape of kernels or by weight. 

To Remove Weed Seeds.— Most weed seeds may be 
reinoved from grain by running the grain through a fanning 
mill. The large weed seeds aie separated from tiie grain by 
dropping the grain through a sieve that is too fine to let 
the weed seeds through. The small weed seeds are taken 
out by running tlie grain over a si(^ve that is too fine to let 
the grain through but coarse enough to let the small weed 
seeds through. The weed seeds that are lighten- than the 
grain may be blown out. Sometimes the light grains, like 
oats, may be separated from heavy weed seeds by blowing 
the grain out of the weed seeds. 

There are some weed seeds, like cockle and wild vc^tch, 
which are about the same sizc^ and wcMght as wheat, that 
are very hard to separate from that giain, while such 
weed seeds as wild oats are very hard' to separate from 
oats and barley, as the seeds are quite similar in character. 
When such wcoxl seeds aie present in grain and can not 
be removed with a fanning mill, a small amount of seed 
free from such weed seeds may be secured by hand pickin*'- 



44 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

or by pulling the weed plants from a small plat of grow- 
ing grain, thereby getting a start in clean seed. 

Grading Seed Grain. — Many persons are satisfied when 
they get pure and clean seed grain; but, if one wishes to 
get the best results and maintain or improve grain from year 
to year, it is necessary to grade out and use for seed only 
the very best individual seeds in the whole amount grown 
on the farm. This may be cheaply done by grading the 
grain as shown on page 42. In this way the heavy plump, 
kernels are separated from the smaller, lighter ones. The 
former kernels should be used for seed and the latter sold 
or used for feed. 

Germination. — It is as important that seed grain ger- 
minates (starts to grow) well as that seed corn germinates 

well. It is a very sim- 
ple matter to test seed 
grain for germination, 
and this should always 
be done before it is 
planted. A good ger- 
minator is made as fol- 
lows : Partly fill a plate 

Figure 16.— A simple germinator for testing seed with Sawdust Or Saud, 

grain. The lower plate is partly filled with ^^,.<i« vinih a pln+Vi nnrl 

sand, the grain placed between the cloths on COVer Wltn a ClOT.n, aUQ 

top of the sand and all covered by an inverted qU this SCattcr One hun- 

plate. If kept moist and in a warm room, i i j ri 'il 

good seed will germinate in from 5 to 7 days, arecl SCeClS. I OVCr With 

another cloth, moisten 
and cover all with an inverted plate. See Figure 16. An- 
other simple germinator for grain and grass seed is made 
out of blotting paper. Place the seeds to germinate between 
two squares of the blotting paper. Good seed in such a 
germinator, kept moist and in a warm room, as a hving room 
or school house, for from five to seven days, will sprout. 
The number out of the one hundred that start to grow vig- 
orously in that length of time will represent the per cent 
of the seed that will be likely to grow in the field. It will 
pay to try this with several different kinds of grains. 
Questions: 

1. From what source is one most likely to get good seed grain 
for most of a planting? Why? 

2. In what ways may weed seeds be separated from seed grain? 




GRAIN CROPS 45 

3. By what method can one cheaply separate the large, plump 
kernels of grain from the small and light kernels? 
Arithmetic: 

1. Two men can clean and grade with a fanning mill 20 bus. of 
grain in an hour. If the best 30% is saved for seed, how many bushels 
of seed will be secured? How much will it cost per bushel to save 
seed in this manner, if each man's time is worth 15c. per hour? 

2. If it costs 5c. per bushel to grade out the best seed and it 
requires two bushels of seed to seed an acre, how much must the yield 
be increased per acre to pay for the extra cost of grading the seed, if 
oats are worth 38c. per bushel? 

3. If one seeds 50 acres to grain that germinates but 80%, what 
proportion of the land is seeded to grain that will not grow? 

WHEAT 
PRODUCTION 

Importance. — Wheat is the chief source of bread com- 
monly eaten in the United States ; in fact, in the greater part 
of the world. White bread is found on nearly every table 
at every meal. It is even more common than potatoes. 
The United States produces about 730,205,000 bushels 
of wheat annually. It is one of the large wheat-producing 
countries of the world. Russia produces about the same 
amount. Each person in America uses about 4.7 bushels 
of wheat per year. The central western states, from Ohio 
and Indiana west to Kansas and the Dakotas, are the 
principal wheat'-producing states. 

The wheat yield of the United States for 1914 was 878,- 
680,000 bushels valued at $610,122,000. This was the 
largest crop ever raised in this country. The average per 
acre was raised from 16.7 to 19 bushels. 

Place. — Wheat has been grown in the central western 
states quite generally for the first years of their development. 
In the older states it is usually replaced to a considerable 
extent with corn and grass, and, while there is still a large 
acreage of wheat grown in these states, it is by no means 
the chief crop. It has a very important place on a general 
farm, and, when grown in rotation with other crops, it is 
a profitable crop. Wheat ordinarily does not yield as 
large a money return per acre as corn or potatoes, but it 
may yield as much profit, because a comparatively small 
amount of labor and expense are required to grow it. Wheat 



46 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

is one of the best grain crops to use as a nurse crop for clover, 
timothy and other grasses. 

Kinds of Wheat. — There are a great many kinds of 
wheat, but few are commonly cultivated. They are broadly 
classed as spring and winter wheat. Winter wheat is dis- 
tinguished as soft, semihard, and hard, and spring wheat 
as soft, hard, and durum, or macaroni. Spring wheat is 
seeded in the spring and harvested in late summer. Winter 
wheat is seeded in the fall, lives over winter, and is harvested 
in midsummer. From 60 to 70 per cent of the wheat grown 
in the United States is winter wheat, mostly of the Turkey 
variety, the standard hard winter wheat. Minnesota and 
the Dakotas produce about 70 per cent of the spring wheal 




Figure' 17. — A fine field of wheat. 

grown in this country, a large part of which is of the fife 
or bluestem type. 

Soil for Wheat. — Wheat will do well on any ordinarily 
productive soil in temperate zones having a well -distributed 
annual rainfall of from 20 to 40 inches. The chief essentials 
are available plant food and moisture. It does best on land 
where a cultivated crop like corn or potatoes has preceded 
it or on land that has been summer fallowed. 

Manures and Fertilizers. — The grain removes from the 
soil considerable amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and 
potash. In 1,000 pounds of wheat there are 19.8 pounds 
of nitrogen, 8.6 pounds of phosphorus, and 5.3 pounds of 
potash. As the straw contains about 15 per cent of potash 
and very small per cents of the other mineral matter, as 



GRAIN CROPS 



47 



straw is likely to remain on the land, and as most soils are 
better supplied with potash than nitrogen and phosphoric 
acid, these are the elements likely to be depleted. Clover, 
as green manure, will add nitrogen, and stable manure, 
vegetable matter. It may, then, be necessary to supply 
phosphorus in a commercial fertilizer. Otherwise com- 
mercial fertilizers are required only when the land has been 
too long cropped without rotation or natural replenishment. 

Preparation of the Land. — Land is usually and prefer- 
ably plowed to a medium depth of from four to six inches. 
For winter wheat seeding the soil should be harrowed at 
once very thoroughly to 
pack down the lower part 
of the furrow slice so that 
it will retain sufficient 
moisture for the growing 
crop, as it would not do 
if left loose or lumpy. 
It is claimed that early 
plowing effects an appreci- 
able increase in the crop, 
even July plowing being 
preferable to August or 
September plowing. 

For spring wheat fall 
plowing is preferred. The' 

soil may then be left Figure is.— a good shock of wheat well 

rough, open to the air and capped. 

moisture, to be harrowed or disked, or both, in the spring, 
to secure a fine, smooth mulch. Fall plowing also enables 
the vegetable matter to decay to some extent before the 
spring crop is sown. 

Seed and Sowing. — Seed should be 
and graded and free from weed seeds, 
plumpest kernels may be obtained by 
through a fanning mill. Constant selection of the best seed 
is sure to result in improvement. 

Wheat is sown at the average rate of one bushel to one 
and a half bushels per acre as the soil ranges from light and 
warm to heavy clay. It may be sown in diills, usually six 



.^ 




m^^^J^^^^^ 


riMM 




felMB 




^^p9 




^^^3 


MM 



carefully selected 
The heaviest and 
running the grain 



48 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

inches apart, or broadcast. Drilling is preferred, as it 
deposits the seed at any even depth, it is all covered and 
less is required. From one inch to one and a half inches is 
proper depth, depending on the moisture and texture of 
the soil. 

The farther north winter wheat is sown the earlier it 
must be sown. Spring wheat should be sown early. Wheat 
germinates and develops a good root system at cool tempera- 
tures. The early plant has many more chances of escaping 
disease, insects, and other damage. 

Harvesting. — Wheat should be harvested promptly when 
it is ripe, on the one hand to secure the largest yield and on 
the other to avoid loss from shattering and storm. In the 




Figure 18a. — Combined harvester and thresher drawn by tractor. 

central and eastern part of the United States it is harvested 
chiefly with binders. In the western part of the United 
States, where extensive acreages are grown, much of the 
harvesting is done with large combination machines that 
cut, thresh, and sack the wheat in one operation. These 
machines are hauled by large traction engines or by thirty 
or more horses. They can be used only where there is no 
danger of rain, so that the wheat can stand till thoroughly 
ripe. 

Shocking. — Shocking must be done by hand. A good 
shock requires that the heads of all the bundles be kept off 
the ground and protected from rain. Eight or more bundles 
are firmly set on the ground, butts down and leaning against 
one another so as to stand erect. The shock is then capped 



GRAIN CROPS 



49 



with one or two bundles so placed as to shed water and 
protect the heads of grain from sun and dew. If well set, 
a shock of this kind will not easily be blown over. The butt 
end of the cap sheaf should not extend beyond the shock. 
Stacking. — Stacking is quite an art, and men pride them- 
selves in building uniform, straight stacks that will not 
blow over and that will protect the heads from the sun and 
rain. The foundation of a stack generally consists of a 
sufficient number of upright sheaves leaning against one 
another towards the center. On these other bundles are 
laid horizontally in tiers, with butts out and overlapping, 




Figure 18b. — Kernels of wheat, enlarged 

beginning at the outside. Each layer, for several feet, 
should extend a few inches beyond the one below it, to form 
a "bulge." The reverse process should then be followed 
to the top. For several feet also the top of the stack should 
be kept level. Then the center should be built higher so 
as to afford a slope to the edges. Rain will thus run out- 
ward and off. 

Threshing. — Wheat is often threshed from the shock. 
This method is cheaper. There is always risk of damage 
when grain is kept exposed, but convenience and other cir- 
cumstances often make it advisable or necessary to stack. 



50 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

Threshing facilities are not available for all at one time. A 
modern outfit will thresh 1,000 to 3,000 bushels in a day. 
Storing. — Wheat, if dry, may be stored wherever it can 
be protected from rain or pests, if not in quantities so large 
as to heat. After being stacked three or four weeks it is 
not likely to heat. It loses only a small percentage by 
shrinkage. Most grain is sold from the farm at threshing 
time or soon afterwards. If wheat is held for a rise in price, 
it may be that the shrinkage and loss of interest on money 
invested will more than offset any possible gain. 

Questions: 

1. What can you say about the United States as a wheat-pro- 
ducing country? 

2. What soil and preparation is best for wheat? 

3. How can the different food elements be supplied? 

4. How does it pay to select good seed? 

5. Explain how to make a good shock and stack. 
Arithmetic: 

1. ^V^^at per cent of its crop does the United States export? 

2. If 2% of an average 40-acre crop is lost, what amount of 
money would be lost if wheat is worth $2.00 a bushel? 

3. If the extra expense of stacking is 2c. a bushel, what would 
it cost to stack 40 acres yielding 23 bushels an acre? 

4. If a man sows wheat with a drill 8 feet wide, how many miles 
will he have to travel to sow 80 acres? 

ECONOMIC ASPECTS 

Grades. — Market grades are determined by the Secretary 
of Agriculture. There are six classes; namely, hard red 
spring, durum, hard red winter, soft red winter, common 
white, and white club. These are divided into subclasses 
which are again subdivided. Weight, moisture, foreign 
material, and damaged kernels are the chief basis for the 
distinctions. The legal weight of a bushel is 60 pounds. 

Exports and Imports. — Russia, Argentina, Canada, the 
United States, Roumania and Australia are the chief ex- 
porters of wheat. For the five years from 1909 to 1913 in- 
clusive Russia exported 155,000,000 bushels annually; 
Argentina, 93,000,000; and the United States, 84,000,000. 
The United Kingdom, Germany, Belgium, Holland and 
Italy are the principal importing countries. Conditions 
and figures have naturally been greatly disturbed during 
the world war. 



GRAIN CROPS 51 

Prices. — The price of wheat is subject to many varying 
conditions. From 1906 to 1915 inclusive the price in this 
country averaged about 87 cents. From 1908 to 1917 
inclusive it averaged $1.07. In July 1918, on account of 
war conditions, the price of wheat in Chicago was $2.26. 
Aside from quality, distance and, especially, demand are 
price factors. Attempts to fix the price by proclamation or 
law are justified only in emergencies. 

Cost of Production. — The cost of production varies also 
on account of local or accidental conditions. The usual 
items of cost are rent of land, price of seed, labor, fertilizers, 
machineiy, marketing, etc. Recent and relial)le data are 
not available to determine the cost with accuracy. In 1911 
it was estimated to l^e, on an average, for the United States, 
$11.15. The cost must have increased at least in propor- 
tion to the upward trend of prices. The amount of wheat 
that we can raise on an acre, therefore, })ecomes very im- 
portant. In the United States this has been said to be 
about 15 bushels on an average. In France it is 20; in 
Germany, 30; and in the United Kingdom 33. Low yields 
are mainly the result of the use of poor or diseased seed, 
poor cultivation, insects or diseases, and climatic conditions. 
Practically three fourths of the unfavorable conditions are 
in the control of the farmer. 

Rotation. — A three-year rotation in which wheat is in- 
volved is: First year, corn; second year, wheat; third 
year, clover. This is a good rotation for light or run-down 
soils or where the other crops are fed to stock and the man- 
ure is returned to the soil. 

A five-year rotation is: First year, wheat; second year, 
hay; third year, pasture; fourth year, corn; fifth year, oats. 
This is suitable where more diversified farming is practiced. 

Rotation of crops is discussed on pages 320, 324, 329, 
332 and 334. 

Uses. — Wheat is used chiefly as a human food. The 
gluten in it makes an elastic dough which is preferable for 
bread making. It is seldom, therefore, fed to stock, except 
that screenings are fed to fowls. The by-products in the 
manufacture of flour, however, such as bran, shorts, and 
midtllings are conunonly fed to live stock. 



52 ELEMENTS^ OF FARM PRACTICE 

Diseases and Insects. — The diseases to which wheat is 
most subject are scab, rust, and smut. Scab attacks the 
glumes, or chaff, and causes shrunken kernels. It is shown 
by pinkish spots. Rust weakens the straw and causes 
shrunken kernels. There is leaf rust and stem rust, the 
latter being the more destructive. The spores of this dis- 
ease live over winter on some other plant, as the common 
barberry. Smut is either loose or stinking. The former 
attacks and destroys the glume and kernel; the latter pro- 
duces a smut ball instead of a kernel. For treatment for 
smut see page 157. 

The insects which damage wheat are 
chiefly the Hessian fly, chinch bugs, grass- 
hopper, and army worms. The fly lays 
eggs in the stem, weakening and breaking 
it. The chinch bug sucks the sap. Grass- 
hoppers and army worms devour the 
plants. 

Great losses are caused by these diseases 
and insects. For methods of prevention 
see reference books and bulletins. 

■^ Questions: 

Figure 18c. - 1. Wlien would wheat be dearer, generally 

Chinch bug, enlarged speaking, when it is being imported or exported? 
Why? 

2. Can you determine whether, all things being considered, it 
is more profitable to raise wheat at high prices? 

3. Why does wheat do better after a cultivated crop? 

4. How many uses of wheat can you enumerate? 

5. What is the best way to combat wheat insects? 

Arithmetic: 

1. What is the value of an acre of wheat yielding 13.5 bushels 
at 8.5c. a l)ushel? Of an acre yielding 24 bushels at $2.25 a bushel? 

2. If it costs $11.15 an acre to produce wheat, how much does 
it cost per bushel, if the yield is 15 bushels? If 20? If 25? 

3. Three spring-wheat states averaged 182,000,000 bushels a 
year. It was estimated that smut caused 10% of damage. If there 
had been no smut, how many more bushels would there have been? 
If wheat was worth $1.17 a bushel, how much was lost from smut? 

4. If the United States Exports 84,000,000 bushels of wheat annu- 
ally, how many persons would this amount supply, if each one consum- 
es 4.7 bushels a year? How many times the population of Chicago? 




GRAIN CROPS 



SZ 



OATS 



PRODUCTION 



Importance. — The importance of oats in the United 
States is shown by the fact that about one billion bushels 
are grown each year. The important oat-producing states 
are in the central west, with Iowa, Illinois, Wisconsin, 
Minnesota and Nebraska leading. Oats are commonly 
grown throughout the world, and in the same countries 
that produce wheat. The United States, Russia, Germany, 
France and Canada are the principal oat-producing countries. 
In 1914 there were raised in the United States, 1,141,- 
060,000 bushels, valued at $499,431,000. The acreage was 
38,442,000. Iowa and Illinois lead all the states in the pro- 
duction of oats. The average yield per acre for the United 
States is 31.2 bushels. The annual world production is 
about 4,500,000,000 bushels. 

Kinds. — There are winter and spring oats. Hulled, or 
common, oats is either "side" or "spreading" as its branches 
are about even and turn to one side or are of different lengths 

and stand out at various 
angles. Again, oats may be 
divided according to the color 
of the hull. Most of the oats 
grown in the United States is 
of the spring variety. 

Soil for Oats. — Oats, like 
wheat, do well on a variety of 
soils. That one, however, 
which permits early seeding 
and germination is likely to 
mature its crop early. Oats 
needs an abundance of mois- 
ture. Loams and clay loams, 
therefore, furnish a good bed. 
It should be just fairly fertile. 
Figure 10. A good sheaf of oats If -too ricli. m tho prescuce of 
well capped. plentiful moisture weak stems 

and diseases are likely to occur. Oats thrives on cool soil 
and in cool climates. 




Manure and Fertilizers. — M:inuro should Ix' applied to 
;i pnwious crop for host, results for oats. When phosphorus 
and potassium arc lacUinjj;, coinincrcial f(Mtili/crs may he 
us(Mi. If nili'o^cii is lackinji;, a lcfz;umiii()us crop should he 
plovv(Ml under; hut connnercial fcrtilizei' conlaiuiu^' uitro- 
ji;(Mi as well as ilu^ two othei- elements uumtioned may be 
used. 

Preparing the Land. — The s(>e(l IxmI should he pr(>pai-e(l 
as eaily in the spring- as [)ossil)lc, and left with a loose mel- 
low surface w(^ll fii'med a}2;:>inst the subsoil. Diskinj;' or 
harrovvinfj; will suflice on land just previously cultivatxMl. 
Otherwise, fall plowing- and sprin<j; diskinj;- and harrowinji; 
produce tlu^ l)(>st i-esults. 

Seed and Sowing. It is im|)ortant to ^rade oats before 
sowing and to select only lar^c and plump kernels of uni- 
form (!()lor and free from ail imi)uiities. Like wh(>a,t, oats 
may bc^ treated with formaldehyde tor smut. 

Oats should be sown early to insure eaily maturity, as 
rust is likely to develoj) and attack th(> plants with the 
advent of hot weather, hlarly oats will matuie in from 
<)() to 100 days. 

I*'rom two to three bushels of seed should be sown per 
aciv. Within limits thin seedinji, is likely to produce the 
most abundant I'oot systcMU. The s(>ed may be sown broad- 
cast, or with a diill. Th(> drill, as with wheat, is likely to 
produce the best r(>sults. The s(>(>(l should be c()\'(M-ed moic 
deeply in loose than in compact soil. l<'rom on(> to two 
inches is a fair a\'erai;-e. 

Harvesting. The methods of cuttinjj;, sluxdviufj;, stack- 
inj>;, threshint; and storing oats are hardly different from 
those describcMl for wlu>at. If oats are very short, they may 
be cut, handled, and W^(\ like hay. It is i)refcrable to stack 
oats, which should not be threshed for two or three weeks 
afterwards, in order to permit "sweating!;." They should 
be threshed then when dry so that the <j;rain will se|)arate 
well. Oats are www likely to be stored on the farm, as 
they ar(^ fed there. 
Questions: 

I VVIicrc do omIs rank in iiiiporlaiicc as a crop? 
2. Ill wliat respect do soil coiidilioiis lor oats dilTcr from those 
for vvhoat? 



GRAIN CHOPS 55 

3. Why should oats ho sown as oarly as possil)lo? 

4. Wliat is "sweating?" How mi^ht it do daniago? 
Arithmetic: 

1. If oats yield 30 ImisIicIs per acn>, wcinhinK :V2 Ihs. per bushel, 
how many pounds arc produced jx-r acre? 

2. If TjOO ll)s. of water is t^iven off lo produce 1 II). of dry plant 
matter, how many pounds were f^iveti olT to produce the grain alone 
imder conditions of above example? 

3. When the acre cost of producing oats was I14.0S, the land 
rental value was estimated at S3.7S. What per cent of the cost was 
that? 

ECONOMIC ASPECTS 

Grades. — -Tho ituu'kot doc^s nol disliiisuish oats as caro- 
fuUy as wheat. There arc niiinbers 1, 2, 3, 4 in whit(\ 
mixed, and red, or rust proof oats. White oats usually 
bring the best price. The lej2;al weight of oats in most 
states is 82 pounds per busheh 

Exports and Imports. — Very little oats is either exportcMJ 
or iniportiMl. 'I'he iniportations ai'c principally for seed. 

Prices.^ — Vov the ten years from 1908 to 1917 the av(M-- 
age December price of oais was VA.7 c(Mits, lunng HI.!) c(nits 
in 1912 and ()().9 cents in 1917. On August 1, 1<)1S, Uie 
country price of oats was 73 cents a busluil. Tlie average 
acre price; for the United States from 1913 to 1918 was 
about $15.74. 

Cost of Production. — It is estimated that in 1909 it 
had (;ost on a (country-wide average 31 cents a bushel or 
$10.91 an acn; to produce oats, at the same the price was 
40 c(mts a bushel or $14.08 an acre. The items considered I 
in cost were laud ren(;il, schmI, fertilizers, labor and mis- 
cellaneous expense. As the piice has incre^ascMl siiic(i this 
estimate, it is altogether likely that tlu; cost has kept pace 
with it. When the crop amounts to less than 25 bush(>ls 
to the acre, it is proba))le that it is produced at a los.s. In 
Germany the average is 57 bushels and in the United King- 
dom, 44. Practi(cal agriculture must, theref()r(\ dis(;over 
ways to increase; the yield in the United Staters. 

Rotation. — In the corn belt oats generally follow ('orn. 
They fit in where winter wheat is not grown. Two crops of 
corn may Ix; raised, followed by oats, which in tinii ai(; suc- 
ceeded by one or two crops of grass or clover. Where 
potatoes are raised oats should follow, succeeded by clover. 



56 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

If wheat and oats are both raised, oats should follow wheat. 

Uses. — About two thirds of all oats raised is fed on the 
farm, mostly to horses. Mixed with other grains they are 
excellent for dairy cattle and sheep. Oats should be ground 
if fed to hogs and made into a mash for brood sows. The 
feeding value of oats is, generally speaking, about the same 
as of wheat. The straw, however, is l^etter stock feed than 
wheat straw. 

As oatmeal or in rolled form oats is a staple article of 
human diet. It is also used in baking and in war time as 
a partial substitute for wheat flour. 

The by-products of milling are used as stock feed. Oats 
is sometimes cut green for hay. The straw is best for bed- 
ding. It is worth about $3.00 a ton for manure. 

Diseases and Insects. — Leaf and stem rust and loose 
smut are the principal diseases which attack oats. They 
have effects similar to those they have on wheat. To avoid 
rust early varieties should l)e planted on fairly fertile soil, 
well-drained, if drainage is necessary. For smut, seed 
should be treated with formaldehyde. 

The hull of oats serves as a protection against insects. 
The principal enemies are army worm, chinch bug, green 
bug, grain aphis, and grasshopper. Grain weevils may at- 
tack oats in storage. Tight bins and fumigation are the 
remedies. 

Questions: 

1. Why might it l)e that oats are less carefully graded than wheat? 

2. What difference is there in the cost of producing oats andwheat? 
Comparing average cost of production and selling price, which is more 
profitable to raise? 

3. Why should oats be placed after corn in a rotation? 

4. How can damage from disease and insects be prevented? 
Arithmetic: 

1. When oats increased in price from 43.7c. to 66.9c. a bushel, 
what per cent of increase was it? 

2. When it cost $14.08 an acre to produce oats, at how much 
would oats have to sell to make 2.5 bushels an acre unprofitable? 

3. If a bushel of oats makes 3 pecks of breakfast food, how much 
does a dealer get for it if he sells 6 pints for 12c.? 

BARLEY 
Barley is not grown in nearly so large quantities as oats 
or wheat. Russia is the chief barley-producing country. 



GRAIN CROPS 57 

The United States, Austria-Hungary, Great Britain, (ler- 
many, Canada and Spain are other countries that produce 
barley in large quantities. 

Barley is used for malting, that is to make beer, and for 
feed. It yields more pounds per acre than oats, but is not 
so popular as a feed as oats, and the crop is a little more 
unpleasant to handle than the other grain crops on account 
of the beards or awns. Barley, however, is a good feed for 
all classes of stock, and is used quite generally as a sub- 
stitute for corn where corn is not easily grown. It is an 
early maturing, heavy growing crop, and on that account 
is one of the best spring-sown grain crops for cleaning the 




Figure 20. — Some good grain stacks. 

land of weeds. There are several different types of l)arley: 
the six-row and two-row beai'ded, the hull-less and beardless. 
By far the most important type is the six-row bearded. 

Culture. — Barley does best on rather rich soil. On 
light soils the straw is likely to be so short that it is difficult 
to cut with a binder. Barley is the most tender to fi'ost 
of any of the grain crops. Frost in the spring will f|uite 
seriously injure liarley, wiiile wheat, rye and oats are un- 
harmed. On this account the crop is usually sown from 
two to four weeks later in the spring than other grain crops. 
From seven to eight pecks of seed are sown per acre. 



58 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

Harvesting. — Barley is cut and shocked in the same 
manner as wheat. Special care must be taken with barley, 
if it is to be sold for malting, to protect it from the weather, 
as bleaching of the kernels materially reduces the value 
for that purpose. It must, therefore, be cut as soon as it 
is ripe, carefully shocked in capped shocks, and stacked or 
threshed as soon as it is dry enough. 

RYE 

Rye is the least important cereal crop in the United 
States, but is more important as a world crop than barley. 
Russia produces the largest acreage of rye of any country. 
Germany, Austria-Hungary, Norway, and Sweden, and 
France are other important rye-producing countries. In 
these countries it is used to a much greater extent for bread 
than in the United States. It is used for bread, for the 
manufacture of alcohol, and as feed for stock. The green 
crop is often used for pasture, and it will furnish pasture 
earlier in the spring than most other crops. Rye is an ex- 
cellent crop to grow in cleaning land of weeds, because it 
matures early. 

Culture. — There are two types of rye, spring and winter. 
Winter rye is the more common in the United States. It is 
very hardy, and will grow on almost any kind of soil. It is 
commonly sown on the lighter soils, because it will do bet- 
ter on such soils than other grain crops. It is usually sown 
in the fall from August to October, at the rate of five to six 
pecks per acre. It is harvested in about the same manner 
as other grain crops are. 
Questions: 

1. Tell what you can about the importance, uses, varieties and 
culture of barley and of rye. 
Arithmetic: 

1. If rye yields 16 bushels per acre, weighing 56 lbs. per bushel, 
how many pounds are produced per acre? 

2. If barley yields 2.5 bushels per acre, weighing 48 lbs. per bushel, 
how many pounds are produced per acre? 

Exercises: 

1. Gather samples of seed of all the grain crops grown in your 
neighborhood and make sure that you can properly name each. Find 
two or three of the most popular varieties of wheat, oats and barley 
grown in your community. Can you tell these varieties apart by 
the seed? 



GRAIN CUOPIS 59 

2. Gather samples of the different kinds and varieties of grain 
from the field when headed out. Can you tell wheat, oats, and barley 
apart when growing before they have headed out? Can you tell 
them apart after they are headed out? How? 

3. Write a full tabulated description of wheat plants, oat plants, 
barley plants, noting roots, stems, leaves, heads, and kernels, and tell 
how you can tell them apart. 

Compare the roots of grain plants with the roots of clover and 
timothy plants. 

4. Chew a small sample of wheat and see if you can make gum 
out of it. Try to make gum from oats, barley, or corn. Can you do it? 
What is the value of the gluten? 

5. Select a small handful of the l)est kernels of wheat, oats, and 
barley that you can find. Compare these with other samples of seed 
being planted in your neighborhood. 

6. Figure as carefully as possible what it costs on your farm to 
produce wheat and oats. 

7. Germinate a few plump and a few shriveled kernels of wheat 
or oats side by side between moist blotters and note results. 

8. Try to obtain facts from several farms and tabulate results 
as to amount of wheat and oats produced per acre. 



CHAPTER V 

CULTIVATED CROPS 

CORN 
GENERAL FEATURES OF THE CORN CROP 

Corn is an odd but true grass like timothy or wheat. 
It is native to America and was imported into Europe by- 
Columbus who found it cultivated by the Indians when 
he discovered this continent. It is adapted to temperate 
zones but may be acclimated to the northern regions of 
the United States. It is grown most in the United States, 
Austria-Hungary, Argentine, Russia, Egypt and Australasia. 

Importance. — Corn is more widely cultivated, yields 
a larger crop than any of the other cereals, and its total 
value is greater than that of any other crop grown in this 
country. In 1914 the United States produced its largest 
crop— 2,672,804,000 bushels, valued at $1,702,599,000. 
The average acre yield was almost three bushels more 
than in 1913. The average number of bushels produced 
in the world for the years 1905-1909 was 3,585,418,600, of 
which 76% was produced in the United States. The average 
acre value of corn in the United States is $12.53. The value 
of the grain alone in this country is greater than that of any 
other two farm crops produced and greater than that of the 
wheat, oat, barley, flax, rye and tobacco crops combined. 
The grain is used in different forms as food for both man and 
beast, while its many manufactured and by-products have 
extensive uses. The fodder is also made to serve in various 
ways as food for stock. 

Yield of Com. — Average yields of corn in even the 
best corn-growing states of the Union are very low, much 
lower in fact than yields secured by the best farmers. It 
is well worth the time of any one interested in farming to 
know the methods practiced by the best farmers, that 
the maximum yields at the least possible expense of labor 
and fertility may be secured. 



CULTIVATED CROPS 61 

As farmers change from grain raising to a more diver- 
sified type of agriculture, more live stock will be kept and 
more corn raised. The average 160-acre farm will then 
raise from 30 to 50 acres of corn each year. 

A Young Man's Opportunity. — If a young man begins 
farming on one of these farms when he is twenty years old, 
and continues until he is fifty, he will raise during his active 
life approximately 1,200 acres "of corn. It will make quite 
a difference to him and his family whether he follows indif- 
ferent methods of farming and gets an average yield of 30 
bushels per acre, or whether he follows good methods and 
gets 50 bushels per acre. It will pay, and pay well, any boy 
who expects to raise corn to thoroughly master the subject, 
so that he will get the extra 20 bushels per acre. 

Requirements. — Nearly every large business is made up 
of many details, and corn growing is no exception. The 
four general requirements for a good crop of corn are. good 
seed, good soil, good tillage and good climatic conditions. 

Good seed is easily secured by selecting good ears of corn 
from good plants, and by carefully curing, storing, testing 
and grading it. 

Good soil may be had in almost any part of the United 
States by properly caring for the land we have. By prac- 
ticing rotation of crops, by keeping live stock and feeding 
on the farm most of the field crops raised instead of selling 
them and thus losing fertility, by draining land that is 
too wet, and by keeping in check noxious weeds, land may 
be maintained at a high state of productivity. 

Good tillage means doing the things which make the 
soil the best possible place for the crop to grow. This 
requires a knowledge of the soil, of the movement of water 
in the soil, of the habits of plants, and of the methods by 
which plant food is liberated. 

Climatic Conditions. — Good seed, good soil, and good 
tillage are within the control of the farmer. Climatic 
conditions are not, though he may do many things to guard 
against unfavorable weather. He can drain his land to 
avoid an excess of moisture and to make his soil warmer. 
He can regulate his tillage operations to conserve moisture 
in case of drouth and to aid in warming the soil, if it is too 



62 ELEM'ENTS of FARM PRACTICE 

cold. By manuring land and by growing clover occasion- 
ally, he can make a soil warmer, more retentive of moisture, 
and increase its producing power, so that crops will grow 
more rapidly and thus ripen in a shorter time. Climatic 
conditions are usually favorable, so that, with good methods 
of farming, good crops can be grown practically every year. 

Some farmers in the corn belt have raised more than 
one hundred bushels of corn per acre. Let us set our stand- 
ard at that and be satisfied with nothing less. 
Questions: 

1. Why do you think it worth while for a boy to study about 
corn growing? 

2 Name at least four conditions necessary to secure a good 
crop of corn. 

3. What may one do to reduce the bad effects of unfavorable 
weather? 
Arithmetic: 

1. A and B each grow 40 acres of corn per year for 30 years. 
How many acres does each grow in the 30 years? 

2. If B uses the best known methods of corn growing and secures 
an average yield of 20 bus. per acre more than A, how many bushels 
more corn will he raise in 30 years than A raises? How much will his 
extra corn be worth at an average price of 54c. per l)ushel? 

SIZES OF KERNELS OF CORN 

Variation of Corn Kernels. — There is a great variation 
in the size of kernels of corn; and while this has little to 
do with the yield — that is, some varieties with compara- 
tively small kernels may yield more than other varieties 
with large kernels — it is, nevertheless, important to select 
ears of corn on which the kernels are about uniform in size. 

To Compare Kernels. — Shell kernels from the tip, the 
butt and some from the middle of an ear of corn, keeping 
the three kinds separate. Lay three of the even sized ker- 
nels from the middle of the ear together on a sheet of paper 
and draw a circle about them. Make the circle just large 
enough so the three kernels will lie flat within. (Circle 
about the size of a nickel.) See how many of the small 
tip kernels can be laid in this circle and how many butt 
kernels. This circle is about the size of a hole in the plate 
of the corn planter. Notice how much thicker some of the 
butt kernels are than kernels from the middle of the ear. 



CULTIVATED CROPS 



G3 



i 


id 




i*ai**ffV'l 












■^-^^r"'^-' 




m^w^\ 






mm. 






Figure 21. — Good ears of rorn, with 
straight rows and even kernels. 



Figura 22. — Poor ears of corn. Note 
the crooked rows and irregular ker- 
nels. 



Examine a corn planter, if possible, to see how it drops 

the corn. 

It is very important to the farmer that all his seed corn 

he uniform in size, because corn is now planted by machines 

and unless the kernels 
are about the same size 
and shape the machine 
cannot drop the same 
number in each hill. If 
uneven sized kernels 
were used for planting, 
the number in a hill 
would vary as the num- 
ber of kernels you were 
able to place in the cir- 
cles 3^ou drew varied. 

Most farmers like to plant three kernels in a hill, because 




Figure 23. — Relative size and shape of tip, 
middle and butt kernels of corn. The 
circle represents the hole in the plate in 
a corn planter, with the number of ker- 
nels of different sizes that a planter would 
drop. Photo by H. D. Ayer. 



64 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



they have found that three stalks to a hill give the best 
yields. 

Even Seed. — Farmers can get even corn to plant by 
selecting even, straight rowed ears of corn, and by shelling 
off the tip and butt kernels, using this part for feed and sav- 
ing only the more even kernels from the middle of the ears 
to plant. The whole crop on an acre of corn depends on 
a few ears of sceil corn. 

Questions: 

1. Do the size and shai)o of korncls of seed corn make any differ- 
ence to the farincu-? 

2. How can fanners i>;et even sood corn? 

3. If the tip kernels were put into a planter, would it drop too 
many or too few? 

Arithmetic: 

1. After the tip and butt kernels of corn have been shelled off 
from an ear, count the number of rows of kernels; then count the num- 
ber of kernels in one row. How many kernels on the (>ar of corn? 

2. Find how many hills of corn on an acre when corn is planted 
in hills 3 ft. 8 in. apart each way. 

Note. — ^There are 1(50 sq rds. in an acre, and each hill of corn 
takes up 3 ft. 8 in. x 3 ft. 8 in. or 13 4-9 sq. ft. of space. 

3. If three kernels are planted in each hill, liow many ears of 
corn like the one; you counted are recjuired to plant an acre? 

PARTS OF A KERNEL OF CORN 

Examining Kernels. — It is 

not always easy to believe 
that there is a quite complete, 
tliough small, corn plant in 
(^ach kernel of corn. If you 
will dissect a few kernels of 
corn, they will furnish a very 
good object-lesson. A kernel 
of corn consists of three parts 
— an outside shell or seed 
coat, a little speck of life, or 
the embryo, and about the 
embryo a white, starchy sub- 
stance or food portion. 

The seed coat may be 
easily removcMl fiom a kernel of corn that has l)een soaked 
for a few minutes in hot water. It is hard and tough. Its 




Figure 24. — Parts of kernel of flint 
corn. 1. Side on which the em- 
bryo is found. 2. Side opposite 
the embryo. 3. Kernel with em- 
bryo and seed coat removed. 4. 
The embryo. 5. Seed coat removed 
from the kernel. 



CULTIVATED VROPii 65 

purpose is to protect the parts within. It protects them 
from heat, cold, and moisture. 

The Embryo.— The speck of Hfe, or eml)ryo, may be 
taken from a soaked kernel of corn by the use of a sharp 
knife or a needle. It is really a very tiny live corn plant, 
and is found bedded near the tip of the kernel, in the white 
starchy part. This embryo has a root and a stem. The 
stem is not ^I'een, however, because it has been shut up in 
the dark. If corn is properly ripened and kept dry, the little 
plant within each kernel will stay alive a long time, and be 
ready to j^row when the kernel containing it is put into the 
ground and supplied with heat and moisture. If corn be 
allowed to freeze, perhaps thaw out and freeze again, the 
little embryo within a kernel is not likely to live, and the 
kernel would not grow if planted. It is for this reason 
that farmers are careful to select for seed well ripened ears 
of corn, and to store them safely in a dry place. 

Food Material. — After the seed coat has been removed 
and the embryo taken out, a large part of the kernel is still 
left. It is the food part. It makes food for us when the 
corn is ground into meal; or, when the seed is planted and 
the embryo begins to grow, it is this part which furnishes 
the embryo witli food until it has developed roots and can 
get its food from the soil. The large kernels have more of 
this food material than the small ones. A stronger plant 
will grow from a large kernel than from a small one, on 
account of the greater amount of food material the larger 
kernel contains for the early growth of the little plant. 
This is one reason why plump kernels are better for seed. 

Questions: 

1. A kernel of corn consists of what parts? 

2. Tell all you can about each part. 

3. Where in the kernel did you find the embryo? 

4. What would injure or kill the embryo? 

• 5. How should corn which you mean to plant be kept? 
6. From which kernels come the strongest plants? Why? 
Arithmetic: 

1. If corn is planted May 15th and is struck by a frost Sei)t. 
1st, how many days will it have in which to mature? 

2. A bushel of seed corn will plant s»ven acres in check rows and 
is worth $2..')() per Imshel. What is the cost of seed corn per acre? 

3. A pays Sfj.OO per Inishel for seed corn, B [)ays $2.00 |)er bushel. 
3— 



66 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



Each one plants seven acres with his bushel of seed. How much 
more corn must A get per acre than B to pay the extra amount for his 
seed, if corn the following fall is woi'th 54c. per bushel? 

TESTING SEED CORN FOR GERMINATION 

Germination. — A seed is said to germinate when it 
sprouts or begins to grow. Most farmers are careful to 
use kernels from the middle of the ears of corn, because 
the kernels are more even in size and shape and the corn 
planter can, therefore, drop the required number, usually 
three, to every hill. Suppose one ear of corn which has 
five hundred kernels has been frozen or otherwise injured 
so that the embryo in each kernel is dead. If the corn 
planter drops one of these bad kernels with two good ones 
in every hill until the five hundred bad kernels are all planted, 
there will be five hundred hills each with one stalk missing. 
This fault would reduce a farmer's yield; and the more of 
such ears he planted, the greater would be the reduction 
of his yield. If, on the other hand, all the seeds dropped 
in every hill were seeds that would grow, the farmer could 
be sure of a good stand of corn. This point is important, 
because it costs as much to prepare the land, plant and 
cultivate the crop for a poor stand as for a good one. 

Will It Grow? — One 
cannot always tell by 
looking at an ear of corn 
whether or not the kernels 
will grow. A farmer, to 
make sure he is planting 
only good seed, must test 
his corn. He may test one 
hundred kernels taken at 
random from a number 
. , . . . of ears or a sack of corn; 

Figure 25. — A simple germinator consisting i , •(• i r: i xi j. i 

of a plate partly filled with sand, a cloth DUt, II he nUClS that Only 

marked in squares for the corn from each on nay r>ai~,+ r.f liic; rtr^yn 

ear to be tested, and the cloth and plate OU Per CCni OI ms tOrn 

with which to cover the corn. will grOW, he mUSt USe thlS 

poor seed or buy seed. 
A much safer and a very easy and simple way is to test 
each ear before it is shelled. One wishes to know if all 
or most of the kernels on an ear of corn will sprout or 




CULTIVATED CROPS 67 

grow. If he takes ten kernels from one ear, and finds that 
all of the ten kernels sprout, he can safely assume that 
the rest of the kernels on that ear will grow. That is a 
good ear for him to plant. 

If he takes ten kernels from another ear, and finds that 
none or less than half of tliem sprout, he rightly assumes 
that the rest of the kernels on that ear would not be likely 
to grow. That is not a safe ear to plant. 

To Test Com. — By testing each ear a person may throw 
out the poor ones and save the good ones, which enables 
him to use his own seed and to be sure of planting only 
good seed. A simple germinator may be made as follows: 
On a piece of white outing flannel draw with a soft lead 
pencil a six-inch square, and mark it off into nine two-inch 
squares, numbering the small squares from one to nine. 
Place the cloth thus marked over a plate of sand or dirt. 
The next step is to number nine ears of corn. This is 
easily done by fastening a small tag to the butt of each 
ear of corn with a pin, as shown in Figure 26. Take ten 




Figure 26. — Ears of seed corn numbered tor testing. 

kernels from ear No. 1, selecting them from different parts 
of the ear, and place them on square No. 1. Continue 
until each square is supplied with ten kernels from the ear 
of the corresponding number. Moisten the material in 
the plate thoroughly, cover with another cloth and another 
plate, to prevent too rapid evaporation, and set in a warm 
place. Put up carefully the nine ears of corn for future 
comparison. 

The germinator should be examined fiom time to time 
to note the germination of the kernels. If kept warm and 
moist the coi-n should all germinate in five to eight days. 



68 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



Kernels slow in germinating should be counted as worth- 
less, as they would probably not grow in the field, if unfavor- 
able conditions prevailed. 

For testing a large amount of seed corn, as for ten to 
forty acres, a box two to four feet square may be used in 
place of the plates. 

The Rag Doll Tester. — One of the most popular methods 
of testing seed corn is by means of the rag doll tester. These 
testers may be purchased ready-made, or may be made at 
home or at school. To make one use a good quality of 
muslin. Tear off a strip about nine inches wide and five 
feet long. With a soft lead pencil draw a mark lengthwise 

of the cloth and ex- 
actly in the center. 
Then every three 
inches draw lines 
crosswise of the cloth. 
Leave about fifteen 
inches on each end 
without crossmarks. 
Then number the 
squares, wet the 
cloth and the tester 
is ready for the corn. 
Number the ears of 
corn to be tested and 
place six kernels from 
ear number one in 
square number one. See Figure 27. Continue placing six 
kernels from each ear in a square of the same number until 
the tester is full. Place all kernels with the tips one way 
and pointing toward one side of the cloth. Then roll the 
cloth beginning at one end, using care not to displace the 
kernels. Tie a string about the roll and place it in a pail of 
warm water for a few hours. Then remove it from the 
water and place the roll on end in a pail or other dish eight 
or ten inches deep, and cover with a cloth and keep in a 
warm room. Place the rag doll in the pail so the tips of the 
kernels will point down. Several of the rag doll testers may 




Figure 27. — A "rag doU" seed corn tester. 



CULTIVATED CROPS 69 

be placed in one pail. After from five to seven days the 
test may be read. 

Questions: 

1. For what reason should a farmer test his seed corn? 

2. What are the advantages of testing each ear over testing 100 
kernels out of a sack full of shelled corn? 

3. How would you proceed to test 200 ears of corn? 
Arithmetic: 

1. If seven of the ten kernels taken from an ear of corn grow, 
what per cent does the ear germinate? If nine kernels grow, what 
per cent germinates? 

2. If twenty ears of corn will plant one acre, what per cent of 
the corn in a field will be missing if the corn from one of the twenty 
ears will not grow? If the corn from three ears will not grow? 

3. If a man test 400 ears of corn, and 90% of the ears are good 
enough to plant, how many acres of corn will the good seed plant? 
(Assume that twenty ears will plant an acre.) 

4. A man can test 400 ears of corn in 6 hours. His time is worth 
14c. per hour. If the 400 ears will plant 18 acres, how much does it 
cost him per acre to test his corn? If corn is worth 54c. per bushel 
in the fall, how much more corn per acre must a farmer get to pay 
him for thus testing his seed? 

COEN CULTURE 

The Com Field. — In the spring of the year, when most 
farmers are preparing their fields for corn, will be a good 
time to study the planting phase of the corn subject. In 
the first place let us see on what kind of soil our neighbors 
and fathers and brothers are to plant corn. Land that 
produced clover or was pastured last year is best, as the 
clover and grass roots have filled the soil with vegetable 
matter, a very necessary condition for good crops. It 
would be better if the land were plowed last fall, as fall 
plowing gives the soil a chance to settle, so that it will not 
dry out readily. 

Fall plowed land should be thoroughly disked in spring, 
before planting to corn, to insure a fine, mellow seed bed, 
to destroy weeds and to form a surface mulch to check 
the evaporation of water. 

If there is no clover or pasture sod for corn, other well 
drained land, fall plowed, well manured and the manure 
thoroughly disked into the surface of the soil before plant- 
ing, is the next best place for corn. The effort in any case 
should be to have a rich, firm soil, with about two inches 



70 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



of loose soil on top to check the evaporation of moisture. 

Grade Seed Corn. — Practically all corn is now planted 
with a machine, and unless the kernels are of uniform size 
no machine can drop the same number of kernels in each 
hill, and it is important to do so. 

As corn is shelled from the ear there is always more or 
less irregularity in the kernels. This is especially true if 
tlie tip and butt kernels are shelled with the rest. Even 
if they are not used, there are some ii'regular kernels in the 



^rlt^-2 
^'*'^>^% 








Figure 28. — (A) Corn as shelled from whole cob. (B) Corn after it has been 
graded. Note uniformity of kernels. (C) Small and irregular kernels removed 
by the grader. 

middle of the ear, owing to imperfect growth. Examine 
an ear of corn and you will see the irregular kernels at the 
tip and butt and a few in the middle. Irregular kernels 
are easily removed from any sample of corn by running it 
through any of the modern corn graders. 

Corn graders are fitted with screens with holes of certain 
sizes and shapes. As the corn is run through, all the 
small and irregular kernels are separated out, leaving only 



CULTIVATED CROPS 



71 



the regular ones and the kind a planter can plant uniformly. 
A corn grader will cost about $10.00, and is well worth the 
money to any one who is planting any considerable amount. 
If one has no corn grader it is advisable to shell off tip and 
butt kernels and keep them out of the seed corn. 

Planting. — Corn is, as a rule, planted in the spring at 
about the time danger of frost is p^st. There is, however, 
no set date for planting, but a good practice to follow is to 
plant as early in the spring as the soil can be and is well 

prepared and is warm 
enough so that the seed 
will germinate. There 
is nothing gained by 
planting corn in cold, 
wet, poorly prepared 
soil; for, in such con- 
dition, seed, even if 
good, is very liable to 
rot in the ground. 
Probably one very gen- 
eral mistake is made in 
planting corn too deep. 
Corn cannot be made 
to root deep simply by 
planting deep. The 
roots will go wherever the soil conditions are most favorable. 
On ordinary land it is not wise to plant corn more than 
from one to two inches deep. 
Questions: 

1. What is a good crop to precede the corn crop? 

2. Why prefer fall plowing to spring plowing for com? 

3. What is gained by grading seed corn? 
Arithmetic: 

1. It costs 10c. per bushel to grade seed com. What does it 
cost per acre if a bushel of corn plants 7 acres? 

2. If a man were to spend five hours shelling off tip and butt 
kernels and picking out irregular kernels from a bushel of seed corn, 
how much would it cost him, if his time is worth 14c. per hour? How 
much would it cost him per acre? (See E.xample 1.) 

REASONS FOR THE CULTIVATION OF CORN 

Conservation of Moisture. — One of the main reasons 
for cultivating corn is to save moisture in the soil. There 




Figure 29. — Planting Corn. Straight rows 
indicate good workmanship and are a 
joy throughout the year. 



72 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

are two waj^s by which moisture is taken from the soil; 
first, by the growing crops and, second, by evaporation 
from the surface of the soil. The water that is evaporated 
is worse than wasted. It is lost to the crop and its evapora- 
tion tends to make the soil cooler. (Demonstrate this by 
moistening the hand and exposing it to the air.) The hot 
sun, the moving air, and the wind, greatly hasten evapora- 
tion; hence it is evident that, if the part of the soil in which 
the moisture is held can be separated from the sun and 
wind, much less moisture will be lost by evaporation. 

Moisture moves in the soil by capillary force. For 
example, two particles of sand lie close together and one 
is wetter than the other. The dryer one will attract some 
of the water from the other until both are equally wet. 

Experiment. — This capillary movement of water may 
be seen very plainly by following this plan as suggested: 
Fill a glass half full of sand and pour in enough water to 
thoroughly wet the sand, being careful not to wet the sides 
of the glass. Now fill the glass with dry fine sand and 
watch the moisture creep upward. The water is moving 
by capillary attraction. Moisture will move by capillary 
force in any direction, but always from moist to drier soil. 

Surface Mulch. — If you will go out in a field, on a bright 
day, where cultivation is being done, you will notice that 
very soon after the cultivator has gone over the ground 
the surface soil begins to look dry, while the surface soil 
where it has not been cultivated appears more moist. Moist- 
ure is being evaporated from both surfaces, but where the 
soil is firm moisture moves up from below to replace that 
evaporated; and this process will continue if not checked, 
until the soil is robbed of all available moisture. The 
cultivated portion is so loose that the moisture cannot 
readily pass up through it, as the particles of soil are not 
close together, hence evaporation is checked. 

Too much attention can hardly be given to maintain- 
ing this surface mulch, or loose soil on top. A shower of 
rain just sufficient to pack the surface may be more injurious 
than beneficial to a crop, by causing a great loss of moisture, 
unless the soil is cultivated soon after the shower. 

Destruction of Weeds. — Another reason for cultivating 



CULTIVATED CROPS 




Figure 30. — A two-row cultivator at work. Many farmers are now using these 
larger machines. One man can do nearly twice as much work with such a ma- 
chine as he can with a one-row cultivator. 

is to destroy weeds. The smaller the weeds are the easier 
it is to kill them. On this account it is important that 
soil be so worked that most of the weeds are destroyed 
before the corn is planted, as it is difficult to cultivate very 
young corn and the weeds may get ahead of the corn. It 
is also cheaper to cultivate with a large harrow than with 
a cultivator. Of course corn may be harrowed after it is 
planted or even after it is up, but the less harrowing neces- 
sary at this time the better, as more or less corn is injured 
every time the field is harrowed. 

In fields well prepared before corn is planted, very few 
weeds will be seen, and those appearing are small and easily 
killed at the first cultivation. 

Other Objects. — Cultivation aerates the soil, i. e., opens 
it and lets air into it, thereby stimulating the decomposition 
of vegetable matter and liberating more plant food. 

Cultivation also keeps the soil loose, so that rain which 
falls may be readily absorbed, thus making a larger supply 
upon which to draw when a dry season comes. 
Questions: 

1. What is the main reason for cultivating corn? 

2. In what two wa.ys is moisture taken from the soil? 

3. How does cultivation check evaporation? 
'^. Give another reason for cultivating corn. 



74 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

Arithmetic: 

1. A team travels 2}4 miles to cultivate an acre of corn planted 
3% ft. apart each way. How far must it travel to cultivate 8 acres? 

2. If a team travels 18 miles with a harrow 12 ft. wide, how much 
land would it harrow? 

3. How many times can one afford to harrow land to save one 
cultivation? (See two examples above.) 

METHODS OF CULTIVATING CORN 

Depth to Cultivate. — There seems to be an unsettled 
question among farmers as to how deep to cultivate corn. 
Apparently there is no rule that one can safely follow, for 
the conditions vary with soils and seasons, so that it is 
largely a matter that must be settled by the individual 
farmer and depends entirely upon the depth of the corn 
roots. In a dry loose soil corn roots will grow nearly straight 
down, while in a heavy or more moist soil they will spread 
out near the surface of the ground. Roots naturally grow 
where there is available plant food; and that, we have 
learned, is where there is heat, air and moisture. In wet 
years they find this condition near the surface, and in dry 
years or in dry soil they must go deeper down for the plant 
food. The accompanying cut shows how corn roots usually 
grow. (Figure 31.) 

Roots of Com. — A very interesting study of the root 
system of corn may be made by taking a rather blunt wooden 
paddle and carefully scraping away the loose soil between 
two hills of corn, until the roots are exposed. One may 
then observe the roots, how far they spread out from the 
hill of corn and how near the surface they grow. As a rule, 
when the corn is a foot high the roots from the rows will 
be overlapping and within one to four inches from the sur- 
face, depending upon how wet the soil is and how recently 
and how deeply cultivated. 

Results of Deep Cultivation. — From the above facts it 
is quite evident that, if the cultivator is run too deep, some 
of the roots will be cut off. The roots are the feeders of 
the plants; consequently every one that is cut off decreases 
the amount of moisture and plant food the plant will get. 
The effects of too deep cultivation may be seen by cutting 
down in the soil four inches, with a sharp spade, two to 
four inches from a hill of corn. Then note Insults. If it 



CULTIVATED CROPS 



75 



is a dry, hot day the leaves will soon begin to curl up on 
the plant thus injured, showing that a portion of its water 
supply has been cut off. 

It is necessary, however, to cultivate to kill weeds, to 
let air into the soil and to form a surface mulch to save 
moisture; and many times it is necessary to cultivate deep 
enough to injure corn roots in order to accomplish these 
various things; but the aim should always be to cultivate 
no deeper than necessary. If deep cultivation is to be 
practiced at all it should be done while the corn is small, as 
it is injured less at this time. 

Cultivator.— The kind of cultivator used has much to 
tlo with the depth of cultivation. If a cultivator with two 

large shovels on a side 
is used, it must be run 
deeper to cover all the 
space between the rows, 
than one which has 
three, four or five shov- 
els on a side. The small 
shovels and more of 
them do finer, shallow- 
er work than the large 
shovels; but where cwn 
has been neglected until 
the weeds are large, the 
larger shovels are bet- 
ter, because they do not 
clog up so easily and 
because they plow out 
the weeds instead of 
cultivating them. 

Surface Cultivators. 
— At present many far- 
mers are using what are 
called surface cultiva- 
tors. In place of shov- 
els there are two or more knives or blades that run 
an inch or so below the surface of the ground, separating 
the surface soil from the soil below and cutting off just 




Figure 31. — The root system of corn, 
sas Bulletin No. 147 



Kan- 



76 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

below the surface all weeds growing between the rows. 
If possible, examine cultivators with these different kinds 
of shovels and note the work they do. 

Check vs. Drills. — Many farmers drill in their corn, 
i. e., plant it in rows only one way. It can then be cul- 
tivated only one way and the weeds growing between the 
hills cannot be reached with the cultivator. If these weeds 
cannot be covered by having the cultivator throw earth 
against the rows, they must be pulled by hand or let grow. 

Other farmers plant their corn in check rows. As 
they can then cultivate it both ways, they can get all the 
weeds with the cultivator, excepting an occasional one 
growing in the hills. Try to look over fields of corn planted 
each of these ways, at different times during the summer, 
and see which fields are the cleaner. If you can find corn 
planted each way in the same field or on the same farm, 
and receiving the same number of cultivations, it will be 
a better comparison. As one of the main objects in growing 
corn is to clean the land of weeds, it is better on weedy land 
to plant corn so that it can be cultivated both ways. If 
corn is cultivated both ways, it is easier to keep the sur- 
face smooth and level, a condition which is desirable, as a 
ridged surface is hard to work down, and more surface is 
exposed, causing more evaporation. 

Questions: 

1. Why is it not wise to cultivate corn too deeply? 

2. What can you say about different types of cultivators? 

3. What is said of planting corn in drills or in check rows? 

Arithmetic: 

1. If the time of a man and team is worth $4.00 per day, what 
is the cost per acre to cultivate, if they cultivate 8 acres per day? 
How much does it cost to cultivate an acre of corn six times? 

2. How many bushels of com at 54c per bushel must a farmer 
get to pay for cultivating his corn six times? 

3. If the time of a man and three horses is worth $5.00. What is 
the cost per acre, if they cultivate 14 acres per day? (Three horses 
can draw a two row cultivator.) 

SELECTION OF SEED CORN 

Selection Neglected. — A comparatively small amount 
of seed corn is needed each year, on the average farm, as 
one bushel will plant from six to eight acres. On this ac- 



CULTIVATED CROPS 



count the matter of saving seed corn is likely to be neg- 
lected, as farmers are very busy in the fall with other duties. 
Were the saving of the price of seed the only advantage 
gained in selecting seed corn on the home farm, one might 
be justified in neglecting it; but this is by no means the case. 
Adapted to Localities. — Corn in some respects is a ten- 
der plant, very easily affected unfavorably by cold weather 

conditions or cold wet soil, and 
favora])ly by warm weather and 
warm soil. On this account corn 
grown under one condition for 
several years becomes adapted 
to those conditions and is not 
well suited to other conditions. 
No locality is suited to produce 
seed corn for any very large ter- 
ritory. Corn that does well in the 
north will grow and do well far- 
ther south, but as a rule a larger 
corn can be produced on most of 
the well drained soils of the 
south, and will yield more than 
the comparatively small corn 
grown farther north. Corn suited 
to Indiana conditions will grow 
if planted in northern Minnesota, 
but in average years it will not 
mature well, as the season is too 
short. The same varied condi- 
tions may be found on different 
farms in the same locality. 
Farms with a light warm soil, or 
well-drained farms on which the 
soil is kept highly productive 
by good methods of cropping, 
manuring, etc., can grow and 
mature a larger variety of corn 
than farms in the same neigh- 
borhood with heavy, and poorly 
drained soil or soils in poor condition. 




Figure 32. — Two varieties of Dent 
Corn growing side b.v side and 
given similar treatment. That 
on the right is mature, as 
shown by the drooping ears; 
that on the left is still quite 
green, as shown by the erect 
ears. Both are Yellow Dent 
Corn, but one later than the 
other by being grown under 
different c mditions. 



78 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

If a person wishes to get the best results from growing 
corn, he cannot afford to neglect selecting his own seed 
from his own farm. By selecting the best ears of corn from 
the best stalks one gets seed from the plants that are best 
adapted to the conditions of the farm, as shown by their 
superior development the previous year. 

Large Varieties. — A mistake very commonly made is 
to select too large or too late a variety of corn. Every 
one likes to grow large ears of corn, and on this account, 
when seed is secured from some other community or from 
seedsmen, a larger variety than is suited to the conditions 
is likely to be chosen. Large ears of corn are not neces- 
sary to large yields, and it is far better to be sure of a good 
crop, by using a variety that will mature, than to attempt 
to grow too large a variety and have a partial or complete 
failure occasionally. 

Varieties May Be Made Larger. — It is well to select 
a variety of corn that will be quite sure to mature in your 
locality. If the soil is well drained, well cultivated and kept 
at a high state of productivity by growing clover occasionally 
and by keeping live stock and manuring it, and if the climate 
will permit the growing of a larger variety, one can in 
a few years make the variety larger by selecting the larger 
ears. Such conditions will practically insure a good crop 
of corn each year, unless one selects too large ears and 
thus makes his variety too late. If in a few years you can 
not improve the corn to the size you wish it, it is likely that 
your conditions are not favorable for a larger variety; and, 
were you to get a larger variety from some other locality, 
you would be very likely to lose your crop or have soft corn, 
in the ordinary years. 

To Make a Variety Early. — If one wishes to make a variety 
of corn one is growing earlier, one can do so by selecting 
the ears that ripen first. Such a selection cannot be made 
after all the corn is ripened. If one can not select the seed 
when the corn is ripening one can make some progress 
toward earliness by selecting the small ears of corn with 
comparatively shallow kernels. Large ears with deep ker- 
nels are very seldom found in an early variety of corn. 



CULTIVATED CROPS 79 

Questions: 

1. Give two reasons why it is advisable for a farmer to select 
his own seed corn from his own farm. 

2. Why is it better to have a variety of com that is a httle too 
small rather than one that is too large? 

3. Give two ways by which a variety of corn may be made larger. 

4. To get com that will ripen earlier, how and when would yovi 
select it in the field? How select it from a large number of husked ears? 
Arithmetic: 

1. A plants 7 acres of corn with 1 bu. of seed and it yields 40 
bus. per acre. How many bushels of corn docs he get? Extra good 
seed would have increased the yield 20%. How many more bushels 
of corn would he have received had he used good seed? How much 
would the increased yield be worth at 54c. per bushel? How much 
would a bushel of extra good seed corn have been worth to that farmer? 

2. There are 3,240 hills of corn on an acre when planted 44 inches 
apart each way. If a farmer gets 3 10-oz. ears from each hill, how 
many bushels of corn will he produce? 

HOW TO SELECT SEED CORN 

Kind to Select. — If one is to get the best seed ears from 
a field of corn, one must have well in mind what a really 
good ear of corn looks like, and select only such ears. A 
great advantage of selecting seed corn in the field over se- 
lecting it from a load of husked corn is that the stalks may 
be considered as well as the ears. No matter how good an 
ear of corn may be, it should not be taken from a poor plant. 
Usually good ears come from good plants, but there are 
exceptions. It is well to select more seed corn than is 
needed. Then another and more careful selection may be 
made in the spring before planting. 

Time to Select Seed Corn.^ — In order that seed corn 
may be sure to keep over winter and still germinate readily 
it must be taken from the husk and placed where it can dry 
out before freezing weather. If one weighs an ear of freshly 
husked ripe corn, then leaves it in a living room for a month 
and weighs it again, it will be found that it has lost in weight. 
The loss in weight is from the evaporation of moisture. 
Moisture is detrimental to seed corn. Select and husk 
seed corn before there is danger of a killing frost so that the 
seed will not be injured by frost and so it will have time to 
dry out before freezing weather. 

Condition. — The first thing to consider in an ear of 
corn for seed is condition. It must be firm and solid to the 



80 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



touch and heavy, not light and chaffy. Loose or soft ker- 
nels indicate immature ears, which must be avoided, as corn 
from such ears is not likely to germinate and, if the kernels 
do germinate, the plants are likely to be weak. The kernels 
should be bright in color and free from mold or inj ury . 

Shape of Ear. — Ears should be uniform in shape and 
size, and each ear should be as nearly the same size at tip 
and butt as possible. The tips should be well filled out, 
as this indicates hardiness and well matured corn. Large 
butts should be avoided as they indicate coarseness and are 
hard to dry out. There are, also, more irregular kernels 
on these large butts than on properly formed butts. 

Size of Ear.— The size of ears will depend upon the 
variety and the locality. But do not select too large ears, 
as they will have a tendency to make the variety later, 
which may result in considerable loss in unfavorable sea- 
sons. Select the medium sized, well matured ears as nearly 
uniform in size as possible. 

Kernels. — Ears with 
kernels as nearly uniform 
in type as possible should 
])e selected. There are 
good ears of corn with 
(lifferent types of kernels, 
but for any one variety it 
is important that the ker- 
nels be uniform, as only 
such kernels can be plant- 
ed uniformly by machin- 
ery. The most desirable 
kernels are deep, indicat- 
ing a large amount of corn 
in proportion to cob, but 
t he point can be overdone, 
as deep kerneled varieties 
are usually late in ripening. 

Figure 33.— The ear on the left represents SpaCe bctweeil KemelS. 

a good type to select for seed It has J^ Jc^ dcsirablc tO have 

even, regular rows and kernels and a . , 

good proportion of corn to cob. The ear jUSt aS mUCh COm arOUUCl 

Zd'^'^^J^"'""^'' '"'''"''''''"'' the cob as possible; con- 



i>j|JHW 




CULTIVATED CROPS 81 

sequently any space between the kernels is to be avoided. 
These spaces are caused by rounded kernels, and are more 
common and larger in flint than in dent varieties. 

Selecting. — It is a comparatively small task to go through 
the field with a sack and select the desired ears, or when the 
corn is husked from the standing stalks the ears may be 
selected as the husking is being done and the seed ears 
thrown into a sack or small box on the side of the wagon. 
This manner is preferable to selecting the best ears from 
the load or crib after it is husked, as the stalks may be 
considered in the selection. 

Judging. — For judging seed corn in schools and at fairs, 
a score card is used. The following one, adopted by the 
Iowa Corn Growers' Association, is characteristic. The 
method of scoring varies somewhat in the different states. 



I. General Appearance ... 25 

1. Size and shape of ear. ... 10 

2. Filling of butts and tips.. 5 

3. Straightness of rows 5 

4. Uniformity of kernels.. . . 5 



III. Breed Type 15 

1. Size and shape of ear. ... 5 

2. Size, shape, and dent of 
kernel .5 

3. Color of grain 2 

4. Color of cob 2 

5. Arrangement of rows. ... 1 



Total 100 



II. Productiveness 60 

1. Maturity 25 

2. Vitality 25 

3. Shelling percentage 10 

Questions: 

1. When should seed corn he selected, and why? 

2. What are some of the advantages of selecting seed corn in 
the field from the standing stalk over selecting from the load or crib? 

3. For what reasons would you select ears that are sound, with 
kernels tight on the cob? 

Arithmetic: 

1. A bushel of seed corn is worth S3.00 and will plant six acres. 
What is the cost of seed i)er acre? 

2. A fair sized ear of corn will weigh about 10 ozs. What part of 
a pound does it weigh? How many such ears of corn in a bushel? (A 
bushel of ear corn weighs 72 lbs.) 

3. A l)oy selects 200 10-oz. ears of seed corn in one day. How 
many bushels does he save? How much is it worth at $3.00 per bushel? 

STORING SEED CORN 

To Keep Germ Uninjured. — We have learned (page 57) 
that every kernel of corn contains an embyro or germ, which 
is a very small, live corn plant. If the kernel is to be of 
any value as seed, this germ must be kept alive and strong. 



82 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

This little plantlet, or germ, is very similar to any plant. 
Freezing, under certain conditions of moisture, will kill it. 
This germ can stand freezing only when quite dry, as when 
in this condition it is dormant. Trees and other plants 
that live from year to year are very liable to be killed by 
cold winter weather, if kept growing until late in the fall. 
Under normal conditions such plants stop growing several 
weeks before cold weather sets in ; which gives them a chance 
to "harden up" or, as we might say, "ripen." It is evident, 
then, that, if we would keep our seed corn in good condi- 
tion, it must be so handled as to prevent injury to the germ 
in each kernel. 

Keep Dry. — The first essential is to select the seed ears 
before they have a chance to freeze in the field, for many 
times the corn may not become sufficiently ripe to be thor- 
oughly dry; and if not dry, freezing injures the germ. After 
the husk has been removed, the ear will dry out rapidly, 
if placed where it has an opportunity to do so. Seedsmen 
appreciate the necessity of drying seed corn immediately, 
and they store it in a room in such a way that air can circu- 
late about it freely and thus carry off the moisture. They 
very often use artificial heat, as stove or furnace heat, to 
assist in this drying operation. 

Storing. — A farmer, as a rule, saves only a small 
amount of corn and cannot afford a special storehouse for 
it. Probably the most satisfactory way of drying corn and 
keeping it dry, on the farm, is to store it in the attic over 
the kitchen. Here ventilation can be supplied by opening 
windows, and the heat from the kitchen stove assists in 
drying out the corn and in keeping it dry. A basement in 
which there is a furnace, so that the corn will be kept dry 
and so that there will be good ventilation is also a very 
good place for seed corn. Where one does not have these 
facilities or has more corn than one can store in an attic or 
dry basement satisfactoi'il}^, it may be placed on a barn 
floor or in a vacant room in the house or other building. It 
should not be piled over eight to ten inches deep, as it may 
heat or sweat, if piled deeper. Good circulation of air 
should be supplied, as this aids in drying the corn, and it 
is very essential that it be thoroughly dried before cold 



CULTIVATED CROPS 83 

weather. If corn is thoroughly dried and kept dry it will 
stand freezing; but it is much better if it can be kept where 
the temperature is slightly al)ove freezing. 

Seed corn should never be placed above a stable in 
which animals are kept, or over a bin of grain, as the steam 
and breath from the animals, or the steam that may rise 
from a bin of grain, if it heats even slightly, will keep corn 
moist enough to greatly reduce the vitality of the germ. 

Good Seed Essential. — A kernel of corn is a very little 
thing, but it is a very important factor in the production 
of good yields. Very little time is necessary to select and 
care for all the seed corn needed on the average farm and 
few farmers can afford to neglect this part of the business. 

Neglecting to save and properly care for seed corn may 
save one or two days' time in the fall, but it may also mean 
that poor seed corn or corn not well adapted to one's condi- 
tions will have to be planted the next year. Poor seed 
corn means a partial or total loss of the corn crop, which 
may result in a very great financial loss. 
Questions: 

1. What will injure the germ in a kernel of corn? 

2. Why should one take seed corn in from the field before frost? 

3. How do seedsmen store corn, and why? 

4. How may farmers store their seed corn? 
Arithmetic: 

k .. 1. If it requires 20 ears of corn tc plant an acre, how many ears 
are required to plant 40 acres? 

2. If a man can select 800 ears of corn in 2 days, how much will 
it cost him to gather the 800 ears, if his time is worth $2.00 per day? 

3. How many bushels of corn in 800 ears of corn weighing 
10 oz. each (72 lbs. per bushel)? How much is it worth at $3.00 per 
bushel? 

METHODS OF STORING SEED CORN 

Drying. — Free circulation of air about seed corn is neces- 
sary to dry it out, consequently many devices have been 
used for storing it easily, quickly and in such a way that 
this end will be accomplished. 

The old practice, of braiding several ears together by 
the husks and hanging them up, is a satisfactory way to 
keep the corn, but requires a great deal of unnecessary labor. 

A Simple Device. — A very simple and practical device 
for putting up seed corn is illustrated in Figure 34. This 



84 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



device is called a "corn tree." Any boy who can use a saw 
and hammer can make one in a short time. To make it, 
saw a 2 X 4, or better, a 4 x 4 off five or six feet long. To 
the bottom end of this spike a plank 
about 12 inches square, to form a base 
sufficiently large so the tree will stand 
firmly erect on the floor. It is well 
to put some short braces from the 
edges of the plank up to the 4 x 4 to 
stiffen it. A row of finishing nails, nails 
with small heads, are driven in each 
side, of the 4x4 and about 23^ inches 
apart. An ear of corn is easily stuck 
on each nail by jamming it on butt 
first. The nail sticks into the pith of 
the corn cob. This tree may be placed 
in the attic or any other convenient 
place where the corn will be kept dry. 
If the tree is six feet high, it will 
hold about 100 ears, or enough to 
plant about five acres. If one wishes 
to put more corn on the tree, the 
corners of the 4x4 may be beveled off, 
making it eight-sided. There will then 
l)e room for eight rows of corn. Thus 
a tree six feet high will hold 200 ears. 
It is well to plane the 4x4 smooth, so 
that numbers may be placed at the base 
of each nail, thus making it easy to 
number the ears, if one wishes to test 
each ear for germination. 

The double string method is like- 
wise a very practical means of putting 
up seed corn. Take a piece of bind- 
ing twine about fourteen feet long. 
Tie the two ends together. Then 
string up the corn as indicated in Figure 35. The 
strings with from ten to fourteen ears of corn in each are 
easily handled and may be hung from the rafters or other 
convenient places. 




Figure 34. — A simple 
device for putting 
up seed corn to dry. 



CULTIVATED CROPS 



85 



Slatted Shelves. — 

Strips of timber 1 x 4 or 
2x4 stood on end with 
lath nailed on either side 
to form shelves make a 
very good means of put- 
ting up seed corn. This 
method is often used by- 
seedsmen and permits of 
storing in good condition 
a large amount of seed 
corn in a comparatively 
small space. 

Patented Corn Hang- 
ers. — There are numerous 
patented seed corn hangers 
on the market. Most of 
them are good and afford 
a very satisfactory means 
of putting up seed corn. 
The only objection to 
them is the cost. Very 

Figure 33. Showing the double string method gOOd wirC SCCd COm haUg- 
of storing seed corn. ^^.^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^.^^ 

electric weld woven wire fencing. Your state Experiment 
Station will furnish you more complete information about 
making any of these seed corn hangers. 

Wire Baskets. — Long, slender wire baskets are very 
easily made of poultry netting or other closely woven fenc- 
ing. The two ends of a strip of fencing three to five feet 
long are fastened together, and a board or another piece 
of the netting put in for the bottom. Such a basket will 
hold considerable corn, and hold it in such a way as to allow 
it to dry readily. These baskets are preferable to the 
other methods given above only when a large amount of 
seed corn is to be stored. 
Questions: 

1. Why is a good circulation of air about seed corn necessary? 

2. Describe a com tree. 

3. What can you say of wire baskets for storing seed corn? 




86 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

Arithmetic: 

1. How many feet of lumber in a piece of 4x1 six feet long? 
How much is it worth at $30 per thousand feet. 

2. If it takes about 2 hours to make a corn tree, how much does 
it cost for labor, if the boy's time is worth 6c per hour? 

3. If it takes 14 ft. of twine to hang up 10 ears of corn, by the 
double string method, how many feet will it take to hang up 200 ears 
of corn? How much will it cost, if twine is worth 8c per pound? (500 
feet per pound.) 

CORN FOR SILAGE 

Corn silage is l^eing used throughout, the Corn Belt 
in ever increasing amounts. This is due to the fact that 
corn is the surest crop that is grown in that section of the 
country. The corn crop is more nearly controlled by the 
farmer, and less likely to be injured by drouth, hot wind, 
insect pests, diseases and hail than such crops as grass or 
grain. This advantage is due to the fact that the corn crop 
is cultivated and may be kept growing well when the dry 
weather or hot winds destroy or greatly reduce the hay or 
grain crop. 

Live stock can not be profitably kept without an assured 
supply of suitable feed. Where silage is not available it 
is often necessary to sell off a large part of the stock in dry 
years, because the pastures are short or because not enough 
hay was produced to winter them. AVith a silo full of good 
corn silage one can be reasonably sure of feed for stock 
either winter or summer. 

Feeding Value of Silage. — In silage all the nutrients 
produced in the corn crop, both in the ear and in the stalk, 
are saved. Dry corn stalks make fairly good feed, but 
usually half of the stalks are left uneaten by the stock. 
These stalks are not only wasted but are troublesome in 
the yard or barn. Good silage is much more palatable 
and relished more by cattle than dry stalks. Not only 
are more of the stalks eaten in the form of silage, but, because 
the silage is relished better, a larger part of that eaten is 
digested. There is no way known by which a large part 
of the whole corn plant can be made more palatable for 
live stock than in silage. Silage, because it is succulent 
(juicy), comes more nearly furnishing summer conditions 
for stock in the winter than any other farm feed. 



CULTIVATED CROPS 



87 



Com for Silage. — When silos were first used corn was 
put into them quite green. It was found that this silage 
was very sour, and sometimes animals did not like it, or, if 
they did eat much of it, it did not agree with them. It has 
been found, since silage came into more common use, that 
corn must be really ripe or mature when it is cut and put into 
the silo, if first-class silage is to result. Now farmers 
usually grow for silage just the same variety of corn that 




Figure 36. — A good stand of corn for silage. 

they grow for ears. They plant it at about the same time 
in the spring, and cultivate it in the usual way. Corn for 
silage is generally planted about 50 per cent more thickly 
than for ears. It is more commonly planted in drills than 
in check rows. It may be planted in check rows, if desired. 
Time to Cut. — The most important thing about getting 
good silage is the time of cutting the corn. There are no 
reliable rules to go by, because in wet years conditions are 
quite different than in dry years. In wet years the ears 
of corn may be entirely ripe, while the stalks and leaves 
are still green. In dry years the stalks and leaves may be 
quite dry before the ears mature. A crop of corn increases 
in feeding value up until the time it is mature. It is, there- 
fore, desirable to have the corn mature when cut for silage; 



88 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

but it must he cut while the stalks are still green enough 
and have enough sap in them so the silage will pack down 
well in the silo. The ideal condition in which to cut corn 
for the silo is when the ears are nicely ripe and the stalks 
and leaves are still green. 

Cutting Silage.^ — Corn for silage is usually cut in the 
field with a corn binder, loaded at once on wagons and 
hauled to the silage cutter. Here it is cut into short lengths, 
from ^/g to ^ inch in length, and elevated into the silo. 
One or two men are kept in the silo while it is being filled, 
to keep the silage well packed. It is important to pack the 
silage thoroughly so as to crowd out as much air as possible. 
Air in silage causes it to spoil. Silage is kept in a silo l^ecause 
the silo keeps the air out. The machinery for cutting silage 
is quite expensive, so it is advisable, whenever possible, 
for several farmers to co-operate in buying an outfit. 
Questions: 

1. Why is silage and especially corn silage important on live 
stock farms? 

2. By what means may the largest proportion of the corn crop 
be saved for feed? Why? 

3. How should corn be grown for silage, and when cut? 
Arithmetic: 

1. If it costs $20 per acre to grow and store silage, how much 
does it cost per ton, if there is a yield of 9 tons per acre? 

2. Compared with bran at $25 per ton, silage is worth $3.75 in 
feeding value. How much is an acre of silage yielding 9 tons worth? 

3. If a silage-cutting outfit can cut 75 tons of silage per day, 
how many days would be required to fill six 100-ton silos? 

THE POTATO CROP 

IMPORTANCE, VARIETIES, SEED 

Importance.— Since potatoes are a side issue on many 
farms they are often grown without receiving the care 
necessary to insure a successful crop. A great deal of work 
is required to grow an acre of potatoes, hence the importance 
of fitting the soil and caring for the crop, so that a good yield 
may be expected. A fair crop of potatoes is worth $40 per 
acre. A fair crop of grain is worth $10.00 per acre. Care 
in preparing the soil so as to increase the yield 10 per cent 
means an increase in value of $4.00 in the potato crop and 
but $1.00 in the grain crop. Thus, when a crop that brings 



CULTIVATED CROPS 89 

a comparatively large income per acre is raised, one can 
afford to put more expense on fertilizing: or preparing the 
soil or on other operations, as cultivating, etc, than when 
crops yielding less in money value are gi'own. 

Varieties. — The United States Department of Agricul- 
ture, Bulletin 176 (William Stuart), classifies the varieties 
as follows: Early : ('obl)ler. Triumph, Early Michigan, Rose, 
Early Ohio, Hebron. Late: Burbank, Green Mountain, 
Rural, Pearl, Peachblow. 

Seed. — About ten bushels of seed potatoes are required 
to plant an acre. The best seed potatoes are secured by 
selecting them from hills in which there are large numbers 
of uniform and desiraljle potatoes, rather than from hills 
with some large and some small ones. See Figure 39. Of 
course such selection cannot be made in the spring. So, 
if one did not make the selection in the fall at digging time, 




■.k 






Figure 37. — A potato fiuld. Note weedlcss, straight rows. 

the next best thing is to select good, smooth, uniform, 
shallow-eyed potatoes from the stock at hand. 

Prevent Seed from Sprouting. — Potatoes are likely to 
begin to sprout as soon as the weather gets warm. This 
sprouting is undesirable, as the sprouts take nourishment 
which should be saved to nourish the young plant when 
started in the field. Keep the seed in as cool a place as 



90 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



possible without freezing it, and where it is dry. It is a 
good plan to keep seed potatoes in baskets or slatted boxes 
piled up in a cool cellar so that the air can circulate freely 
about them. 

Scab. — The rough blotches on the surface of potatoes 
are called scab. The disease is caused by certain spores or 
seeds, just the same as diphtheria or other contagious dis- 
eases are caused by germs. To prevent scab the spores of 
the disease must be destroyed. The spores may live over 
winter in the soil on which scabby potatoes were grown the 
year before. They may get into the soil with manure from 
animals that have been fed scabby potatoes, or they may 




Figure 38. — A manure spreader. 

be on the seed planted. The latter is the most common 
way of spreading the disease, and, as the seed is very easily 
treated to prevent scab, there is very little excuse for getting 
scabby potatoes in this way. Formalin is a liquid which 
may be purchased at any drug store for from twenty-five 
to fifty cents per pint. A pint mixed with thirty-five gal- 
lons of water makes a solution which will destroy the scab 
spores on seed potatoes, if they are soaked in it for two 
hours. Treat for scab before cutting the potatoes. If cut 
first, some of the pieces may stick together and the spores 
in between will not be reached by the solution. 



CULTIVATED CROPS 91 

There are several other common diseases affecting pota- 
toes. These are quite easily controlled, if one is familiar 
with them. Every potato grower should be thoroughly 
informed regarding potato diseases and their control. Write 
to your experiment station for full information. 

Cutting Seed Potatoes. — Experiments have proved that 
rather good sized pieces give larger yields than small pieces. 
It is well to cut the pieces to about 1 oz. in size, being sure 
to get at least one good eye in each piece. The large pieces 
furnish more food for the plants until they get their roots 
started than do the smaller pieces. Sometimes whole halves 
arc planted, and often pieces having at least two eyes. 

Questions: 

1. Why can a farmer afford to spend more time preparing an 
acre of soil for potatoes than for grain? 

2. How should seed potatoes be kept during the winter? 

3. How does sprouting injure seed potatoes? 

4. How is the disease known as scab spread? How is it treated? 
Arithmetic: 

1. If potatoes are planted in rows 36 in. apart, with hills 16 in. 
apart in the row, how many sq. ft. of space will each hill occupy? 
How many hills will there be on an acre? (There are 43,560 sq. ft. in 
an acre.) 

2. If there are 10,890 hills of potatoes on an acre and one 1 oz. 
piece is planted in each hill, how many bushels of seed will be required 
to plant an acre? 

3. If there are 10,890 hills of potatoes on an acre, how many 
pounds must each hill yield to produce 300 bushels per acre? 

PLANTING AND CULTIVATING POTATOES 

The Soil and Its Preparation. — Potatoes require rich, 
moist, mellow soil; and, as the tubers must grow under 
ground to protect them from the sun, it is well to have the 
soil mellow to quite a depth, six or eight inches. It is 
evident that the land must be plowed to a good depth. 
Fall plowing is preferable, as it gives the soil a chance to 
become firm and settled and be acted upon by the weather. 
Spring plowing, unless very thoroughly disked and harrowed, 
is likely to be too loose and to dry out. It is also more 
likely to be lumpy. 

Clover sod, or land that has grown clover the previous 
year, and was plowed in the fall, is the ideal soil for pota- 
toes, especially if the land was top-dressed with manure 



92 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



before it was plowed. A very excellent way to prepare 
such land is to top-dress it with good stable manure in the 
fall on the clover sod before it is plowed. Then disk it to 
cut up the sod and mix the manure with it. Then plow in 
the fall. This treatment gets the clover sod and the manure 

well pulverized and mixed 



together and turned un- 
der where the tubers 
are to grow. It insures 
them a rich, mellow 
place. If soil is very- 
light and sandy, it 
would be better to plow 
the land in the fall 
without manuring it. 
Manure it during the 
winter or spring and 
disk the manure in, thus 
keeping it near the sur- 
face. 

If land has been treat- 
ed as suggested above, 
disking and harrowing 
it a few times in the 
spring will put it in excel- 
lent condition for plant- 
ing. 

If the land has not 
been prepared in the fall, 
then the same manur- 
ing and disking should 
be done before the land 
is plowed. Then plow, 
harrow and disk until 
the soil is well packed 
down. It is important that spring plowing be well harrow- 
ed to assist in firming it, that it may not be so loose as to 
dry out too quickly. 

Planting.— Potatoes may be planted from early spring 
to early summer. Early planting is usually preferable so 




Figure 39. — Types of potatoes. 1 is a 
rough, deep-eyed type, not desirable for 
any purpose. 2. A good type of Bur- 
bank. 3. A good type of Carmen No. 3. 
4. A good type of early Ohio. Note 
smooth surface and shallow eyes of Nos. 
2, 3 and 4. 



CULTIVATED CROPS 93 

that they will have a chance to make their p;rowth l)efore 
the dry, hot weather comes. Potatoes grow better in rather 
cool weather when the soil is reasonably moist. They are 
usually planted in rows about 36 inches apart and the 
pieces are dropped from 14 to 18 inches apart in the row. 
About 4 inches is a good depth to plant them. If one 
has a horse planter it is a very easy matter to plant potatoes. 
There are also satisfactory hand planters. If but one half 
an acre to an acre is raised, as is the case on most farms, 
they may be easily and well planted by marking the land 
with a corn marker, then plowing a furrow, for each row, 
with a common walking plow or a shovel plow, dropping 
the seed in these furrows by hand, then covering with a 
plow or by harrowing crosswise. 

Blind Cultivation. — If potatoes are planted with a hand 
planter or by dropping into furrows as suggested above, it 
is a good plan to go into the field with a cultivator after 
they have been planted a few days and give the plot a 
good cultivation. This is called bhnd cultivation. Set 
the shovels so as to throw the dirt on the row, thus making 
a ridge over each row. Follow this every few days by 
harrowing. 

Throwing the dirt in a ridge over the rows, then later 
leveling it off with the harrow, keeps the soil mellow over 
the rows and prevents weeds from starting, making it much 
easier to keep the rows clean. 

Cultivation of potatoes should continue at frequent 
intervals, from the time they are planted until the vines 
cover the ground, to keep down weeds and to check the 
evaporation of moisture. Potatoes require a great deal of 
moisture, and a lack of moisture at any time reduces the 
yield. As in cultivating corn, care must be taken not to 
cultivate deep enough to injure the roots. Except when 
the soil is cold and wet, level cultivation is preferable to 
hilling. 

Spraying. — It is now quite impossible to grow potatoes 
successfully without spraying the vines one or more times 
while they are growing. They must be sprayed both for 
bugs and diseases. A spray containing Paris green or other 
poison to kill the bugs and Bordeaux mixture or other 



94 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

fungicide to check the blight is commonly used. This 
saves time, as the combined spray is as easily applied as a 
single purpose spray, and is quite as effective. For full 
particulars write to your State Experiment Station. 
Questions: 

1. For what reasons would you prefer fall plowing for potatoes!" 

2. Describe a good method of preparing clover sod for potatoes. 

3. How are potatoes planted? How cultivated? 
Arithmetic: 

1. It costs 35c. per acre to disk land. A farmer disks his potato 
field twice after manuring and before plowing. What must be the 
increased yield to pay for the extra work of disking twice, if potatoes 
are worth 35c. per bushel? 

2. It costs 50c. per acre more to plow 6 in. deep than to plow 
4 in. deep. How much does one get for his extra labor, if land plowed 
6 in. deep yields 10 bus. more than land plowed only 4 in. deep, if pota- 
toes are worth 35c. per bu.? 

3. If it costs 50c. per acre to cultivate potatoes, how much must 
each cultivation increase the yield to pay for the cultivation, if pota- 
toes are worth 35c. per bushel? 

ROOT CROPS 

Importance. — Root crops, such as mangels, rutabagas, 
turnips, stock carrots and sugar beets, are grown quite 
generally as feed for stock. They are especially important 
on farms not supplied with ensilage. On farms where 
stock equivalent to ten cows or less is kept, it is seldom 
practical to use silage. Good stock feeding requires that 
some sort of succulent feed be provided. Root crops may 
be grown with the machinery ordinarily found on the farm, 
and do not require an expensive building for storage. For 
these reasons it is decidedly practical to grow root crops 
on farms keeping only a small amount of stock, if the stock 
is an important factor on the farm. 

Other Uses. — Sugar beets are grown much more exten- 
sively for the manufacture of sugar than for stock feed. 
Rutabagas and turnips are grown quite extensively as 
vegetables for human food. 

Culture. — Root crops require a great deal of hand labor. 
On this account it is important that they be planted on 
very rich land that will produce a heavy yield. Ten tons 
per acre is a common yield. It is more practical to have 
the soil so rich by manuring it, and in such fine condition 



CULTIVATED CROPS 



95 



by thorough cultivation, that yields of from 20 to 40 tons 
may be secured. Deep plowing, preferably in the fall, to 
the depth of from 8 to 12 inches is desirable for roots. This 

should be followed by 
very thorough disking 
the following spring. The 
land may and should be 
disked several times be- 
fore the roots are plant- 
ed. Soon after corn- 
planting is best time to 
sow roots but rutabagas 
and turnips may be 
sown as late as midsum- 
mer. Root crops are 
usually planted in drills 
from 24 to 30 inches 
apart, with 6 or 8 seeds 
per foot of drill. Then 
later the plants are 
thinned so that they 
stand from 6 to 8 inches 
apart in the drill. The 
cultivation may be done 
by wheel hand hoes 
when the plants are small 
and later by horse cultivators. Some hand weeding, thin- 
ning and hoeing must always be done. Clean and thorough 
cultivation is necessary. 

Harvesting. — Root crops must be harvested before there 
is danger of freezing weather. Ordinary white frost does 
not injure root crops. Root diggers may be used, or a 
furrow plowed with a common plow beside a row of roots 
greatly reduces the labor of pulling. Roots nmst be topped 
usually by hand and stored where they will not freeze but 
where the temperature is comparatively low. 
Questions: 

1. Tell if you can why the crops mentioned in this lesson are 
called root crops. 

2. Under what conditions is it advisable to grow roots for stock 
feed? 




Figure 40. — Cutting field roots for feed. 



96 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



3. Describe a good method of growing root crops. 

Arithmetic: 

1. If a farmer has ten cows and wants to provide each cow 20 
lbs. of roots per day for 200 days, how many tons of roots must he 
produce? 

2. If a farmer keeps 40 mature sheep and wishes to feed each 2 
lbs. of roots per day for 200 days, how many tons will he need? 

3. If roots are planted in rows 24 inches apart and a 2-lb. root 
produced every 8 inches in the row, how many tons would be produced 
per acre? 

Exercises: 

1. Visit several farms. 
Observe how and where 
seed corn is stored. Ob- 
serve methods used to 
shell seed corn, to grade 
it, and to test it for germi- 
nation. 

2. Soak a few kernels 
of corn and separate each 
mto the three parts (1) 
seed coat; (2) embryo or 
germ; (3) food material. 
See lesson "Parts of a ker- 
nel of corn," pages 56 
and 57. 

3. Examine carefully several ears of corn and see how many 
rows of kernels on each ear. Do they all have the same number of 
rows? Do the ears have an odd numljer of rows or an even number? 
Examine carefully several ears of corn to see if the kernels are alike. 
Are all kernels on an ear of corn the same shape? On what part 
of the ear are the kernels most uniform? Are tip, butt, and middle 
kernels ahke? 

4. Examine a corn planter and see if there is any advantage in 
having seed corn graded so that all kernels are of equal size. 

5. Arrange either at home or at school to test a number of eai's 
of corn. Which method do you like best for testing seed corn, the 
rag doll, or the box tester? 

6. Go into a field of corn where the plants are two or more feet 
high and with your hands dig carefully around a hill of corn to find 
out vvhich way the roots grow. Whether straight downward or out 
sidewise. Do you think corn might be injured by deep cultivation? 
If so, how? 

7. Try at least four different ways of hanging up seed corn to dry. 




Figure 41. — Sugar beets 



CHAPTER VI 
HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 

HAY CROP 

Importance. — According to the Bureau of Statistics, the 
annual production of hay in the United States from 1902 
to 1911 averaged 60,737,000 tons, grown on 42,557,000 
acres, and valued at $624,664,000, an average of $10.28 
per ton. The total amount was slightly in excess of the 
average annual value of cotton or wheat for the same years. 
The average acre value was $14.72. In addition to its 
money value, the hay crop bears such an important relation 
to soil productivity and to live stock enterprises that at 
least some of the principles of its growth and value should 
be thoroughly understood by every tiller of the soil. 

Advantages. — The value and advantage of the hay crop 
is often underestimated. Probably you have noticed that 
it is not necessary to plow and prepare the land for a hay 
crop as is done for other crops. The grass seed is sown 
with some preceding grain crop. So seeding of hay costs 
nothing but for the seed. 

If you go out into a good meadow of tame hay at hay- 
ing time, you will find very few, if any, weeds; and if there 
are weeds, they will be cut with the hay crop before they 
produce seed, as hay is usually cut before most of the com- 
mon weeds produce seed. For this reason the hay crop 
helps to clean the land of weeds. 

Another advantage is that a hay crop makes the soil 
better for succeeding crops, which is not true of grain or 
corn crops. If there is clover in the hay, it adds nitrogen 
to the soil; and any hay crop increases the amount of vege- 
table matter in the soil, because it has a heavier root system 
than have any of the other classes of crops. You can prove 
this by trying to pull a handful of grass in the meadow and 
a handful of grain in the grain field. 

Cost. — There is no other kind of winter feed grown on 
the farm that can be produced so cheaply in proportion 

4 — 



t)B ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE. 

to its feeding value as hay. Some farmers hesitate to devote 
much of their land to growing hay, because it seems to bring 
in less money per acre than other crops appear to produce. 
The fact that it costs much less per acre to raise hay than 
to raise corn or any of the grain crops, is often overlooked. 
The following table shows the comparative cost of growing 
an oat crop and a hay crop. The figures are averages of 
accurate records on eight farms covering a period of five 
years. 

Cost per Acre, Exclusive of Rent, of Producing Hay and Oats on 
Eight Farms. Average for Five Years.* 

Hay — Timothy and Clover. 
First Crop. 

Seed $ -410 

Mowing 432 

Raking 165 

Tedding 142 

Cocking and Spreading 177 

Hauling in 1-097 

Machinery Cost 1-171 

General Expense . . . ' -623 

Second Crop. 4.217 

Mowing 405 

Raking 156 

Cocking and Spreading 218 

Hauling in 738 

General Expense 2.004 

Total Cost 7,738 

Oats 

Seed 1-319 

Cleaning Seed 037 

Plowing 1-618 

Disking 397 

Dragging 340 

Seeding «*!<* 

Cutting 473 

Twine 189 

Shocking 193 

Stacking 772 

Threshing (labor) 389 

Threshing (cash) 720 

Machinery cost 1.006 

Genera! Expense -804 

Total Cost f8.570 

*Miunesota Experiment Station Bulletin No. 145. 



HAY AXD PASTURE CROPS 



99 



The previous table shows that there is approximately 
twice as much labor and expense in growing an oat crop 
as in growing a hay crop, even when two cuttings of hay 
are made. So it is not necessary to get so nnich from the 
hay crop as from the grain crop to make as large profits. 

Rotation of Crops.- — If you can find in your neighbor- 
hood a timothy and clover meadow seeded last year, and 
one on similar land that has been seeded down — that is, 
raising hay for several years — ^you will see that the new 




FigTire 42.— Breaking sod with a traction plow. 

meadow, if a good stand has been secured, will give a larger 
yield than the old. Likewise a meadow or pasture plowed 
up will usually raise a larger crop of corn or grain than will 
a field that has not been in grass for several years. These 
facts show that both the meadow and the grain and 
corn crops will yield more if new meadows are seeded 
each year and old ones plowed for other crops. This means 
rotation of crops, and illustrates an advantage of the practice. 
Questions: 

1. Name some of the advantages of the hay crop. 

2. How does the cost of raising oats and hay compare? 

3. How does the yield of hay from an old meadow compare with 
the yield from a newly seeded meadow. 

4. What can j'ou say of the rotation of crops? 



100 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

Arithmetic: 

1. One acre of clover and timothy will produce 2 tons of ha,y. 
How much does it cost per ton, if it cost $6.22 per acre to raise it? 
How much does it cost per ton, if $4.00 per acre is added for land rent? 

2. If hay yields hut one and one half tons per acre, how much 
does it cost i>er ton, if it costs $6.22 per acre to raise it? How much 
does it cost per ton if $4.00 per acre is added for land rent? 

3. If clover hay is worth $8.00 per ton compared with bran at 
$20.00 per ton, how much is bran worth when clover hay is worth 
simply the cost of growing it? 

CLOVER 

As clover is one of the most valuable field crops, it is 
important that every one know something of its habits and 
of the conditions favorable to its growth. 

Varieties. — There are several varieties of clover, but 
only four of the varieties are important in the Central West. 
These are Mammoth, Medium Red, Alsike and White. 

Mammoth Clover is very much like medium red. In 
fact, it is very hard to distinguish one from the other. The 
Mammoth is much coarser than the medium red, and on 
that account does not make so good a quality of hay. Its 
chief value is as a green crop to plow under, though it is 
often used for hay, pasture or seed. 

Medium Red is easily distinguished from alsike and 
white clover, as it is larger and each leaflet is marked by 
a V shaped, lighter colored streak near its center. The 
red blossoms aid, , also, in distinguishing this variety of 
clover. It will be noticed that nearly or quite all the stems 
of this clover are covered with fine hair. These hairs are 
objectionable, as they have a tendency to gather dust, thus 
making dusty hay, unless very carefully cured. It is 
usually a biennial, that is, as a rule, it lives but two years. 
It is usually sown with some grain crop, called a nurse 
crop. The clover plants are very small during the early 
part of summer, and do not grow much until the grain crop 
is cut. During the fall the clover grows very rapidly; but 
it does not produce a crop until the next year, the second 
year of its growth, when it produces two crops — two hay 
crops or a hay and a seed crop. The second crop is the 
one usually saved for seed. After the two crops are cut, 
the plants usually die, as they have lived their life. An 
occasional plant may live over, and considerable clover 



HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 



101 




may appear in the field the third year; but this is largely 
due to seeds formed the first or second year of the clover's 
growth, or to clover seeds starting that failed to grow the 
first year. This variety of clover is especially adapted to 
rotation pastures and nieadows. Considerable trouble is 

experienced in curing this 
variety of hay, as the 
thick stems contain so 
much juice that in trying 
to dry them the leaves, 
which are very thin, are 
liable to become too dry 
and shatter off when the 
hay is handled. 

Alsike Clover is small- 
er than medium red clo- 
ver, has smaller, more 
oblong leaves without 
white markings, and 
there are no hairs on its 
stems. The blossoms are 
smaller and lighter col- 
ored, nearly white at 
first and later pink. 
The seed is much smaller and darker colored than the seed 
of medium red. Alsike clover makes a better quality of 
hay than the red clover, because it is free of hairs and finer; 
but, as a rule, it does not yield so much on upland. It is 
a perennial, that is, it lives for several years unless some 
unfavorable conditions kill it. On this account it is more 
valuable for permanent pasture or meadow than the medium 
red. It is quite well adapted for low wet places, as it will 
stand more water than the red clover. 

White Clover is a very small, low growing plant with 
a tendency to trail along on the ground. It has small, 
nearly round, smooth leaves and smooth stems. The seed 
is a little smaller than alsike clover seed and is yellowish 
in color. It is a perennial. The stems creep along on the 
ground and take root at the joints, thus starting new plants. 
It spreads in this way as well as by the seeds. The blossoms 



Figure 43. — Leaves and stems of clover. 
1. Medium red. (Note markings on leaf- 
lets, also hairs on stems.) 2. White. 
(Note smooth stem and small leaflets.) 
3 Alsike. (Note smooth stem and smooth 
leaflets with prominent midrib.) 



102 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



are white, and they can 
usually be seen at any 
time during the summer 
from June 1st until it 
freezes up in the fall. 
The white clover is of 
very little value as a hay 
crop, as it grows too 
short. It is common on 
lawns and in old pas- 
tures and is a valuable 
plant for such places. 
Getting a Catch of 
Clover. • — Difficulty is 
sometimes experienced in 
getting a good catch of 
clover. As clover grows 
slowly the first year it 
is sown, the grain crop 
with which it grows is 
liable to crowd it pretty 
hard; and when the 
grain is cut the hot sun 
is pretty hard on the 
small plants, especially 
if the weather is dry. 
Clover seed should be 
sown only on a fine, mel- 
low rich, well- prepared 
seed bed. Land well 
manured, planted to corn 
and well cultivated, then well disked the following spring, 
and sown to grain, is in fine condition for clover seed. 

If clover seed is sown on poor land the chances of get- 
ting a catch are greatly increased if a light dressing of man- 
ure can be applied soon after the seed is sown. 

Questions: 

1. Name the four vai'ieties of clover common in the Middle West. 

2. Which two are very much ahke? 

3. Describe the leaf, stem and blossom of each of the last three. 

4. What are annual, biennial and perennial plants? 




Figure 44. — Root systems of alsike and white 
clover plants. 1. Alsike. (Note small 
taproot and comparatively large laterals.) 
2. White. (Note creeping stem rooted at 
different places, and fine fibrous roots.) 



HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 



103 



Arithmetic: 

1. If an acre of clover yields 3,500 lbs. of hay at the first crop, 
and a bushel of seed at the second crop, what is the value of the entire 
crop, hay $10 per ton and clover seed $8 per bushel? 

2. If an acre of clover yields 200 lbs. of seed, what is its value 
at .i;8 per bushel? (60 lbs. per bu.) 

3. If clover seed is worth IS per l)ushel, what is its value per 
hundred weight? 

CLOVER ROOTS AND BACTESIA 

Medium Red Clover Root. — An examination of the 
roots of medium red, alsike and white clover will show con- 
siderable difference in them. The medium red clover has 
a large taproot (a root running straight down in the soil). 
This root is much larger and longer than the root of either 
of the other clovers. If a plant is dug carefully from a 

well drained soil, this 
taproot will be found to 
extend down two, and 
often more, feet; which 
shows that this clover 
gets part of its food 
from the subsoil. It has 
also many lateral roots 
running out from the 
taproot. In fact, if roots 
are carefully taken up, 
it will be seen that there 
is nearly as much plant 
l^elow as above ground. 
On this account medium 
red clover is one of the 
very best crops to grow 
to add vegetable matter 
to the soil. 

Alsike clover roots are 
considerably smaller than 
those of medium red 
clover. In many plants 
t he tapi'oot is not plainly 

Figure 4,'). — Root Kvslem of incilium red • , i i 

clover. (Note large taproot, lateral roots SCCn Or IS UOt mUCU largCl 
bScterift "'''^ '"'"''^'^ ^^ nitrogen-gathering ^J^j^^ ^j^^j fibrOUS rQOtS, 



l^y 


— ! 




^H 


^^m 




^fl £ 


i^^msm 


^m 


|,^<s 




ilM 


iSi 


'I /■ v^!^V4( 


1 







104 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

The roots of the alsike clover extend into the soil to consider- 
able depth, however, thus enabling the plants to draw on 
the subsoil to some extent for plant food. This clover also 
adds a large amount of vegetable matter to the soil by its 
roots. Both alsike and medium red are very beneficial to 
heavy soils, by opening them and letting in air when the 
roots decay. They are beneficial to sandy soils by adding 
large amounts of vegetable matter, thus making the soils 
capable of holding more moisture. 

White clover roots are very small and fibrous. No 
taproots are found, and the fibrous roots do not go nearly 
so deep as the roots of the other clovers. The plants grow 
so thickly, owing to their habit of spreading, that they 
thoroughly cover the ground and keep the surface soil well 
supplied with vegetable matter. 

Clover Adds Nitrogen to the Soil. — Clover possesses, 
beside its heavy root system, another feature which makes 
it a valuable crop to improve the soil. If a clover plant is 
carefully dug from the soil, small bunches or nodules about 
the size of an ordinary pin head will be seen on the roots. 
See Figure 45. These are caused by bacteria. Bacteria 
are a very low form of plant life. They are unable to live 
from the soil as higher plants do, but must depend upon 
plant or animal substances to supply them with organic 
matter. Disease germs, the germs that cause milk to sour, 
the germs that cause decomposition or rotting, etc., are 
also bacteria. Some bacteria live on dead matter, others 
on live matter. The latter are called parasites. The 
bacteria causing the nodules on clover roots are in a sense 
parasites, but in this case they are beneficial; they do some- 
thing for the clover plant that it is unable to do for itself. 
All plants require a large amount of nitrogen for food. A 
very large proportion of the air is free nitrogen. Our com- 
mon field crops are unable to make use of this nitrogen; 
but clover, alfalfa, peas, beans and other plants belonging 
to the family called legumes have the habit, which no other 
class of plants has, of forming a sort of partnership rela- 
tion with these bacteria and tlirough them are enabled to 
draw upon the nitrogen of the air. These nitrogen-gather- 
ing bacteria have the power to absorb the nitrogen from 



HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 105 

the air and to pass it on to the plants on which they are 
growing. In this way a soil lacking in nitrogen may be 
made richer in this element by growing a legume crop. 
This is true even though the crop be removed from the 
field, as the roots and stubble left are rich in nitrogen. 
Nitrogen, when bought in commercial fertilizers, costs 
about 18c. per pound; A farmer, by growing clover or 
some other legume crop, can add enough nitrogen to the 
soil to grow several crops of corn or grain, besides his 
legume crop. 

Questions: 

1. Which variety of clover, medium red or alsike, has the heavier 
root system? 

2. In what ways is a clover crop beneficial to the soil? 

3. What enables clover and other plants belonging to the same 
family to make use of the free nitrogen in the air? 

Arithmetic: 

1. What is the value of 150 lbs. of nitrogen at 18c. per pound? 
(Note: An acre of clover may add 150 lbs. of nitrogen to the soil.) 

2. How many crops of wheat, each crop removing 25 lbs. of 
nitrogen per acre, would use the nitrogen added by a crop of clover? 

.3. If an acre of clover yields 3,500 lbs. of hay the first cutting, 
and 2,500 lbs. the second, what is the value of the hay at $10 per ton? 
CURING HAY 

The Weather. — The quahty of hay and its value as 
food depends very largely on the way it is cured. Since 
hay on a great many farms forms a large part of the winter 
food for stock, it is important that it be cured in the best 
possible way. The weather has a great deal to do with 
the curing of hay, and some seasons it is practically impos- 
sible to get hay well cured. But there are certain principles 
involved that, if followed, will usually result in a better 
quality of hay than is secured by methods commonly fol- 
lowed. The suggestions given below apply to clover, but, if 
followed, will give good results with any heavy crop of hay. 

Time to Cut. — While hay that is cut when quite ripe 
yields more per acre and is easier to cure than earlier cut 
hay, it is much less digestible, less palatable, and contains 
a smaller proportion of protein, which is the most valuable 
and costly element in hay. Experiments show that the 
greatest amount of digestible food is secured when hay is 
cut at about the time it is in full bloom. With clover this 



lOG 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



is usually from about June 15th to July 1st. Never cut 
hay while the clew is on it, for time is lost in the drying. 
The dew will dry off more quickly while the hay is standing. 
Curing. — If clover is cut in the forenoon of a bright 
day, it should be turned over, with either a rake or a tedder, 
before any of the top leaves become dry. The object 
sought in curing clover hay should be to keep the leaves 
green as long as possible, as they help to draw the moisture 
out of the large stems, which are the difficult part to cure 




Figure 40. — A modern hay loader saves time and labor. 



If it gets dry enough the first day, so that a good job of 
raking can be done, rake it before night; if not, ted it, if 
possible, so as to get the green hay from the bottom on top 
to take the dew, as dew will l)lacken partly cured clover. 
If it looks like rain, cock the hay as soon as possible; if 
not, leave it in the windrow. The next morning as soon 
as the top part of the hay is nearly dry, rake, or, if raked, 
turn the windrow over either by hand with a fork or with 
the team and rake. Aim to keep the hay loose in the 
windrow, so that the air can pass through it freely. The 
leaves are largely protected from the hot sun in this way, 



HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 



107 



and can perforin their function of drawing water from the 
stems, and are not shattered off and lost. It is usually 
wise to cock the hay the second day, if it is too green to 
store, and leave in the cocks a day or two; then open up 
cocks for an hour or so to the sun and wind; then put under 
shelter, either in barn or stack. 

Damaged by Hot Sun. — The old adage, "Make hay 
while the sun shines," is good advice, but may be overdone. 
Hay, especially clover, that has been exposed to the sun 
for very long is very materially injured, as the thin leaves 




Figure 47. — Tlie hay sling in operation in unloading hay. Two or three sling 
loads will take off a large wagon-load of hay and leave very little scatterings. 

are dried up and lost and little is left but stems. The heat 
of the sun is very essential to evaporate the moisture from 
the leaves and stems. This may be accomplished, how- 
ever, by curing the hay in the cock or windrow and with- 
out allowing the sun to shine directly on the leaves. 

Cock covers may often be used with profit. It seems 
expensive when one first considers them, but if one con- 
siders that bran is worth S20.00 or more per ton and that 
good clover hay is worth very nearly half as much as bran 
for feed, one must acknowledge that the difference in value 
between good and poor hay is often more than the cost of 
using covers. 

Cock covers arc pieces of canvas or sheeting about four 
feet square, with weights sewed in each corner, so that 
when one is spread over a hay cock, the wind will not blow 



108 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

it ofif. Such a cover helps to protect hay, while curing, 
from both the sun and the rain. 

We would advise our readers to test curing clover largely 
in the shade, as suggested above, with at least one cock of 
hay, then compare with other clover cut at the same time 
but exposed to the sun and dew for two or three days. 

If clover is cured until thoroughly dry, and then cocked, 
it will shed very little water, as the stiff stems stick out 
in every direction and the water follows them down through 
the cock. But, if hay is cocked when only partly dry, 
the stems are limber and wilted and so hang down over 
the sides of the cock, and tend to shed water. 
Questions: 

1. In what ways may the value of hay be reduced in curing? 

2. At what stage of growth should a hay crop be cut? Why? 

3. What is gained by protecting clover hay from the sun when 
curing it? 

4. Do you think it will pay to use cock covers in curing hay? Why? 
Arithmetic: 

1. If a cock cover large enough to cover 80 lbs. of hay costs 20c. 
how much will it cost for enough to cover 1 ton of hay? 

2. If cock covers can be used five times each year and will last 
5 years, how many times can each be used during its lifetime? 

3. If enough cock covers to cover a ton of hay cost $5.00 and 
can be used 25 times, how much does it cost per ton for cock covers? 

ALFALFA 

Alfalfa has been grown for forage for many hundreds of 
years. It is not a new crop, though in many sections of the 
country it is just being introduced. Alfalfa and corn are 
the two crops that have been most talked about during the 
past ten years, and on this account many persons regard 
alfalfa as a new crop. 

Advantages. — The chief advantages of alfalfa over 
other hay and pasture crops are its richness in food value, 
the rapidity of growth, — it produces from two to four crops 
per year, — and its perennial habits. Common clover us- 
ually grows but two years, and furnishes a crop but one year. 
When alfalfa is once established in a field, it remains and 
continues to produce good crops for many years. Alfalfa 
is also a valuable crop to enrich the soil on which it grows. 
Like clover, it has on its roots bacteria, which gather the 
free nitrogen from the air and eventually add it to the soil. 



HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 



109 



It has an exceedingly heavy root system. The roots grow 
into the soil to a greater depth than any other common 
cultivated crop. When an alfalfa field is broken up, the 
soil is rich in nitrogen, and well supplied with vegetable 
matter. As alfalfa grows rapidly and is cut two or more 
times a year, it is a very good crop to rid the soil of weeds. 
Feeding Value. — Alfalfa is the richest hay crop produced, 
and under favorable conditions produces more food value 
per acre than any other hay crop. The following table 
shows the composition of alfalfa hay as compared with 
other common kinds of hay. 

Composition of Common Kinds of Hay Nutrients in One Pound. 



Protein 
Pounds 



Carbo- 
hydrates 
Pounds 



Fat 
Pounds 



Alfalfa 

Alsike clover 


.11 

.084 
.071 
.0.30 
.028 
.026 
.037 


.40 
.42 
.38 
.42 
.43 
.42 
.41 


.012 
.015 


Medium red clover 


.018 


Prairie hay 


.014 


Timothy hay 


.014 


Slough hav 


.011 


Fodder corn 


.015 



Besides being richer than other kinds of hay, alfalfa is 
relished by all classes of live stock, including horses, cattle, 
sheep and swine. When well cured and intelligently fed, 
it is a most valuable feed for all farm animals. 

Pasturing. — Alfalfa pasture is one of the best pastures. 
All kinds of stock eat it readily. In fact, it is relished so 
much that great care is necessary in turning stock into an 
alfalfa field to prevent them from bloating. Stock should 
never be turned on alfalfa when they are hungry or when 
thfe alfalfa is wet. There is no better hog pasture known 
than alfalfa, the main difficulty being that the hogs are 
likely to root up the alfalfa and thus thin out the stand. 
If given large pastures and plenty of salt and ashes, hogs 
are much less likely to injure the alfalfa by rooting. 

Seed. — Alfalfa produces seed readily^ especially in rather 
dry sections. One condition that has prevented a rapid 
increase in alfalfa in the Northwest has been the difficulty 
of getting seed that is entirely hardy. Imported seed, or 
seed grown farther south in the United States, is not suffi- 



110 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

ciontly hardy to live over winters where the chmate is severe, 
(^uite a number of men have been trying for years to get or 
produce hardy stiains of alfalfa for the Northwest, and it 
is now possible to get seed that is comparatively hardy. 
It is advisable when possible to get alfalfa seed from a field 
that has grown under conditions similar to your own and 
has withstood the winters. Such seed is reasonably sure 
to be hardy. It is never wise to sow alfalfa seed that you 
have purchased until you have had it tested for germination 
and for purity. You want to be sure the seed will grow, 
and that it contains no bad weed seeds. Your experiment 
station will usually make these tests free of charge. 

Soil for Alfalfa. — With hardy seed, alfalfa may be 
grown successfully on nearly any soil that will produce 
good corn. It requires a well drained soil and soil that is 
not sour. The richer the soil is, the better the alfalfa 
will grow; but, when once started, it will make fairly good 
growth on even poor soils. If soil is sour, the application 
of limestone will correct it. It is advisable, if possible, to 
plow land for alfalfa in the fall, then top-dress it with manure, 
either in the fall or spring, then in the spring thoroughly 
disk and harrow the land before the alfalfa seed is sown. 

Sowing. — Alfalfa may be seeded in the spring with a 
nurse crop or in midsummer alone. The safer plan is to 
disk and harrow the field every few days from spring until 
midsummer. These operations will destroy most of the 
weeds, make a very fine mellow seed bed, and leave the soil 
warm, moist and rich. Seed sown under these conditions 
will start and grow rapidly, and usually get ahead of the 
weeds. Weeds are quite troublesome in getting alfalfa 
started. When sown in midsummer the seed is usually 
sown broadcast and covered with the harrow. If sown in 
the spring, it is usually sown with a nurse crop the same as 
timothy or clover. 

Inoculation. — Alfalfa, like clover, has the power of 
adding nitrogen to the soil. It can do this only when it 
has alfalfa bacteria growing on its roots. The necessary 
bacteria are not always present in the soil. This is likely 
to be true in soils that have never grown alfalfa before. 
Farmers have found this out and are attempting to pro- 



HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 



111 



vide the bacteria artificially. This may he clone in several 
ways. The most common way is to apply a few hundred 
pounds of soil from an old alfalfa field to the newly seeded 
field. This must be done without exposing the soil handled 
very much to the sunlight, as the sun will quickly destroy 
the bacteria. The United States Department of Agri- 
culture will furnish the bacteria free in a small bottle, 
together with instructions for using. This is a very easy 
way of making sure that the proper bacteria are present. 




Figure 48. — Cutting a field of alfalfa. 

Cutting.^Alfalfa may be cut two or more times each 
year according to soil, climate and degree of development 
desired. It should be cut when the shoots representing the 
new growth have started. This stage is easily determined 
by looking at the plants near the ground. If at any time the 
crop begins to turn yellow, it is advisable to cut it, as it will 
make no further growth of value until cut. 

Curing the Hay. — Alfalfa hay, like clover hay, is quite 
hard to cure in the parts of the country where there is likely 
to be rain. Most of the alfalfa is growing in the semi- 
arid or irrigated sections where there is little rain to bothoi-. 
In the states where clover is grown, alfalfa hay is handled 
in al)out the same way as clover hay; that is, it is cut when 



112 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

the second growth starts which sometimes is before it blooms, 
then raked as soon as it can be raked, and cured largely 
in the windrow or small cock. This is to save the leaves 
from drying up and shattering off, as the leaves are the 




Figure 49. — Curing alfalfa hay under cock covers. 

richest and most valuable part of the hay. As alfalfa hay 
is worth about $15 per ton for feed, it usually pays to use 
cock covers in curing it to protect it from the rain and dew. 

Questions: 

1. In what way does alfalfa differ from medium red clover? 

2. What classes of stock will eat alfalfa hay? 

3. How would you prepare a field for alfalfa? 

4. What do you understand by inoculating soil for alfalfa? 
Arithmetic: 

1. Fifteen pounds of alfalfa seed are required to seed an acre; 
how much will the seed cost at 20c. per pound? 

2. If an acre of alfalfa produces 3 crops in one year, 1st crop 
3,500 lbs., 2nd crop 3,000 lbs., and 3rd crop 2,500 lbs., how many tons 
would be produced. 

3. If a ton of alfalfa hay is worth $10, how much would the 
hay produced on the acre mentioned in E.xample No. 2 be worth? 

OTHER COMMON HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 

Timothy is the most common hay crop grown. It is 
grown in every state in the Union. It is a perennial plant, 
and will continue to produce hay or pasture year after 
year without reseeding, unless the land is plowed up. It 
may be grown alone or mixed with other grasses. A very 



HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 113 

eoininon grass mixture for seeding meadows or pastures 
is : 6 pounds medium red clover and 8 pounds of timotiiy seed 
per acre. When timothy is sown alone, about 10 pounds 
of seed are required. The seed is usually sown with a 
nurse crop such as wheat, oats or barley. The grain crop 
protects the young plants from the hot sun and dry winds, 
and also prevents the growth of weeds. The grain crop 
also produces on the land a valuable crop during the year 
the grass crop requires to get started. In this way no time 
is lost, and a crop is secured every year. 

Cutting for Hay.— Timothy usually produces but one 
crop of hay each year, though sometimes a light second 
cutting is secured. Like clover, it should be cut when in 
bloom, but it does not bloom until about two weaks after 
red clover blooms; so, if the two are grown together, one 
crop must be cut a little too early or the other a little too 
late. Timothy is cut and cured very much the same as 
clover; but it is much easier to cure, because it does not grow 
so heavy or have such large juicy stems. In favorable 
weather it may be cut in the morning as soon as the dew is 
off and raked up the same afternoon. 

Value for Feed. — Owing to the ease of growing and cur- 
ing, and its freedom from dust, timothy hay is the fav- 
orite for horses. If cut in proper season it is readily eaten 
by all classes of animals. It is not popular, however, as 
feed for cattle, chiefly because it is not rich in protein or 
muscle-forming material. 

Timothy Pasture. — Timothy is very generally used for 
pasture, but it is not so valuable for this purpose as for 
hay. It is used because seed is cheap, and because meadows 
that have produced hay for a year or more are very commonly 
used for pasture. For one or two years timothy furnishes 
fairly good pasture, but after that the stand gets thinner 
and rather bunchy. If it is to be used for pasture, it is 
well to seed with the timothy alsike clover and if one is 
seeding down a permanent pasture, that is a field to be in 
pasture five or more years, it is better to add five pounds 
to ten pounds per acre of Kentucky blue grass seed. The 
timothy and clover will furnish the greater part of the 
pasture for the first two or three years, and after that the 



114 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



Kentucky blue gi-ass will gradually take its place. After 
blue grass gets a gootl start, it furnishes nuich l^etter pasture 
than timothy. Permanent timothy or blue grass pastures 
are greatly improved by harrowing and top-dressing, (spread- 
ing on a light coating of manure), every two or three years. 
Brome grass is another valuable hay and pasture crop. 
It is unpopular in many places because many farms have 
been infested with quack grass from seeding brome grass. 
The seed of quack grass and brome grass are so much alike 




Figure 50. — Stacking hay by machinery. 

that only an expert can distinguish between them. Many 
of the states now have seed laws that require that all seeds 
for seeding purposes must be labeled, and if a sample of 
seed contains quack grass it must be so stated on the label. 
Most of the states have seed laboratories in connection 
with their experiment stations in which samples of seed 
will be tested free. These laws will make it safe to sow 
brome grass. Brome grass is very well adapted to condi- 
tions where there is likely to be a shortage of rainfall. It 
is especially valuable in such places for pasture. It will 
probably never be a very important crop where timothy, 
clover and alfalfa are easily grown. Its feeding value is 
about the same as timothy, and it is cured and handled in 
about the same manner. From ten to fifteen pounds of 
seed are sown per acre, usually with a nurse crop. 



HAY AND PASTURE CROPS 115 

Other Varieties of Grass. — Kentucky blue grass, red- 
top, orchard grass, Joliiisou grass, rye grass, etc., arc other 
important and valuable grass crops for special conditions. 
Space here is too limited to discuss them. Bulletins from 
your state expe)"iment station, or from the United States 
Department of Agriculture, giving full information about 
these grasses, may be secured by writing for them. 

Questions: 

1. Why is timothy such a popular hay crop? 

2. Tell what you can about brome grass. 

3. Why are the grass crops mentioned in this lesson of less value 
than timothy? 

Arithmetic: 

1. If one sows 6 lbs. of red clover seed worth 15c. per lb. and 8 
lbs. of timothy seed worth 6c. per lb., how much does the seed cost 
per acre? 

2. If an acre of timothy produces It^J tons of hay, how long will 
it last a horse fed at the rate of 15 lbs. per day? 

3. It takes 15 lbs. of brome grass seed to seed an acre. How 
much does it cost at 18c. per lb? 

Exercises: 

1. Dig up and bring to school a clover plant, alfalfa plant, and 
timothy plant. Make sure you can identify each. Make a list of 
the special differences of each. 

2. Gather samples (a complete plant) of each of the following 
kinds of clover: Medium red, Alsike, Wliite, White sweet clover. 
Can you tell them all apart? How? 

3. Gather two handfuls of green clover at haying time. Lay one 
sample out in the svm with no protection from sun or dew or rain. 
Hang the other in a shady, airy place where dew and rain and sun 
Can not reach it. Watch these closely for two or three d:iys and see 
which makes the better hay. 

4. Dig up carefully several good strong clover or alfalfa i)lants 
and see if you can find the nodules of the nitrogen-gathering bacteria, 
as shown in Figure 45. 

5. Bring to school leaves of Medium red, Alsike and White 
clover and alfalfa. Learn to tell them apart. 

6. Gather heads of several different kinds of the common grasses 
grown for hay or pasture in your community. Learn to know at sight 
timothy, bromus, red top and blue grass. 



CHAPTER VII 
MISCELLANEOUS CROPS 

FORAGE CROPS 

Millet is commonly grown as a catch crop where some 
other crop has failed, or where it is necessary to sow a crop 
late. It is usually cut for hay, but some of the varieties 
known as the broom corn millets are grown for seed. The 
seed is used as feed for live stock. Millet has about the 
same effect on the soil as a grain crop. It is very good as 
a cleaning crop, as it grows quickly and covers the ground 
very thoroughly. It will grow on most any kind of soil. 
It may be sown any time during the early summer, and will 
be ready to cut for hay eight or ten weeks after seeding. 
Two to three pecks of seed per acre should be sown. 

Rape is a forage plant that appears, when growing, very 
much like rutabagas. It does not, however, produce a 
heavy edible root like the rutabaga. It is used chiefly as 
a pasture plant for hogs and sheep. Cattle will eat it, but 

















Figure 51. — A field of rape ready for sheep or boga. 



MISCELLANEOUS CROPS 117 

it is not regarded an important pasture crop for cattle. 
It is often sown with grain crops in the spring at the rate 
of from one to three pounds of seed per acre. After the 
grain crop has been harvested the rape grows up in the 
stubble and furnishes pasture for stock during the fall. 
For small fields to be pastured by sheep or hogs, it is com- 
monly sown alone, at the rate of three or four pounds per 
acre. It may be seeded at almost any season of the year 
until fall. Six weeks after seeding it is ready to be pastured 
off, if fair growing conditions have prevailed. It is one of 
the most popular annual crops grown for hog and sheep 
pasture, because the seed is comparatively cheap. 

Field peas are grown to some extent for seed and also 
for hay and pasture, especially in the North. Its chief 
value is for pctsture for hogs and sheep, either when green 
or when the crop is mature. The chief objection to the 
crop is the amount of seed required per acre and its cost. 
Peas must be sown early in the spring. They may be 
sown alone at the rate of three to four bushels of seed per 
acre, but are more commonly sown with oats at the rate 
of two bushels of peas and one bushel of oats. The crop 
may be pastured off green, cut for hay, or allowed to ripen 
and then fed off by hogs or sheep. 

The soy bean is an annual legume crop quite commonly 
grown in southern parts of the United States, but at present 
is not of great importance in the North. The common 
field pea takes its place in the North, because the soy bean 
is very tender to frost. This crop is grown for seed, for 
hay and for pasture. It is sown both in drills and broad- 
cast. When sown in drills about one half bushel of seed 
is required per acre, and when sown broadcast about one 
bushel of seed is used. It is not sown until danger of frost 
is past. 

The cowpea is another annual legume that is becoming 
of great importance in the South as a green manure hay 
and pasture crop. It may be sown late in the summer 
after a corn or cotton crop is out of the way, or between 
the rows of corn or cotton, then cut for hay, pastured or 
plowed under late in the fall. It, also, is very tender to 
frost, and is not profitable as far north as is the soy bean. 



118 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

It may be sown in drills and cultivated, or broadcast, as 
desired. When sown in drills from two to three pecks of 
seed are used; when sown broadcast from four to six pecks. 
Vetch is an annual legume plant, very fine and trailing 
in character. It is grown for hay, or as a green manure 
crop. There are two kinds, spring and winter. The winter, 
or hairy vetch, is by far the more valuable. It may be 
sown in the fall or spring, as desired. It is commonly sown 
in the fall with rye, and the whole crop cut for hay early 
the following summer or plowed under. It is sown at the 
rate of from four to six pecks per acre. None of the annual 
legume crops are important in general farming where the 
clovers and alfalfa can be grown successfully. 
Questions: 

1. Tell what you can about the uses and culture of millet. 

2. Tell what you can about the uses and culture of rape. 

3. Tell what you can about the uses and culture of the annual 
legume crops discussed in this lesson. 

Arithmetic: 

1. If rape seed costs 8c. per pound, and 3}4 lbs. are required per 
acre, how much does rape seed cost per acre? 

2. If 3 bus. of peas are required to seed an acre, how much will 
they cost at IL-TO per bushel? 

3. What is the value of an acre of rape pasture, if it will produce 
as much pork as 1,000 lbs. of shorts, when shorts are worth $25 per 
ton? 

RICE AND SUGAR CANE 

Rice is one of the oldest cultivated plants, and forms 
the staple article of diet for millions of people in India, 
China and Japan. The world's rice crop exceeds the world's 
wheat crop or corn crop. Nearly all the rice grown in the 
United States is raised in three states, Louisiana, Texas, 
and Arkansas. The fertile river valleys and plains of these 
states and their warm climate make rice-growing profitable. 

The land is prepared in much the same manner as for 
other grains, — plowed in the spring and disked and harrowed. 
The seed is generally sown with a grain drill at the rate of 
one to two bushels per acre, either the latter part of April 
or the first of May. When the crop is about eight inches 
high, it is flooded with water to a depth of from three to 
six inches, which depth is maintained until tlie crop begins 
to ripen. The water is then drawn off to allow the ground 



MISCELLANEOUS CROPS 119 

to dry for harvesting. The crop is cut with a binder, stacked, 
and threshed as other grains. In milKng rice, it is not 
ground, but is hulled and the kernels polished. Rice is 
more nutritious if it is not polished, as this process removes 
the portion which contains the fat. 

Sugar Cane. — Sugar cane is a plant which greatly 
resembles corn, only no ears are produced. It is grown for 
the juice contained in the stalk. Sorghum, raised in small 
quantities in the northern states to produce molasses for 
family use, is an annual; but the sugar cane of the southern 
states is a perennial. The former is raised from seed which 
forms on top of the stalk. The latter is propagated from 
sections of the stalk. 

Soil and Climate.^ — Ordinary good soil is suitable for 
sugar cane. In regions of slight rainfall, irrigation is neces- 
sary. The crop requires a long, hot season. 

Planting and Cultivation. — Sugar cane is generally 
planted by laying the entire stalk or a portion of it in furrows 
from four to sLx feet apart. The new plants grow from the 
buds at the bottom of the leaves. Frequent cultivation is 
necessary, also hand hoeing. 

Harvesting and Manufacturing. — The canes are first 
stripped of their leaves, and then cut off close to the ground 
with a knife. As they soon begin to lose their juice, it is 
important that they reach the mill as quickly as possible. 
At the mill the stalks are first shredded and then passed 
between heavy rollers. The crushed stalks are used in the 
mill furnace. The juice is first purified and filtered, and then 
boiled to sugar crystals. 

Questions: 

1. How does rice compare in importance as a world crop with 
corn and wheat? 

2. State briefly the methods used in growing rice. 

3. Tell what you can of the use and methods used in growing 
sugar cane. 

Arithmetic : 

1. If Louisiana produces 380,000 acres of rice yielding 1,000 
lbs. of cleaned rice per acre, how many pounds of rice are produced in 

trip stiitP' 

2. if the world's production of cleaned rice is 175,000,000,000 
lbs., and the production in the United States is ■5.50,00(),()00 lbs., what 
per cent of the world's rice crop is produced in the United States? 



120 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

3. The world's production of cane sugar amounts to about 
8,000,000 long tons, of which continental United States produced 
about 325,000 tons. What per cent of the world's crop was produced 
in the United States? 

FIBER CROPS 

Fiber is a slender, threadlike substance used in making 
numerous things, such as cloth, silk, rope, thread, twine, 
paper, etc. It is obtained from two sources, animal and 
vegetable. The most important animal fiber is wool from 
the sheep and the silk spun by the silk worm. A large part 
of the vegetable fiber is taken from the three plants, cotton, 
flax and hemp. 

Cotton. — Cotton is a plant raised extensively in the 
southern states. The large, white blossom of this plant 
turns pink the second day, and later developes into a body 
about the size and shape of an egg. When ripe, this breaks 
open, exposing the seeds which are covered with fiber or lint 
from one to two inches long. It is this lint when removed 
from the seed that is used in making thread, cloth, etc. 

Soil. — The largest crops of cotton are raised on the 
rich, loamy soils of the southern Mississippi Valley and the 
clay loams of Texas. But it may be raised successfully on 
light sandy soils, if they are fertile and moist. (Nearly 
all the cotton production in the United States is limited to 
the southeastern states.) 

Planting and Cultivation. — The seed is usually dropped 
evenly in furrows. The furrows are generally from two and 
a half to five feet apart. When plants are about two inches 
high the spaces between rows are plowed, and the plants in 
the rows thinned out with a hoe until they are usually 
from one to two feet apart. The crop is later cultivated 
from three to five times, and hoed once or twice. 

Picking and Ginning. — The cotton picking is done by 
hand, and commences as soon as a considerable number of 
pods or bolls open. Usually three pickings are necessary. 

In the ginning the lint is removed from the seed and 
packed into bales ready for the mills. 

Flax. — The flax plant is an annual which grows from 
twelve to twenty inches high. It has a single, upright 
stem and a light blue blossom. It is from the stem that the 



MISCELLANEOUS CROPS 121 

fiber is taken. Flax is raised also for the seed or grain 
from which oil is made. After the oil has been removed, 
the remaining part of the grain is used to feed stock. The 
oil is called linseed oil and is used extensively in mixing paints. 

Soil. — Flax grows best on a comparatively light soil. 
Sandy loams are better than clay. It grows better than 
any other crop on tough sods. For that reason it is often 
the first crop on newly cultivated land. 

Preparation and Planting. — On old land, deep plowing 
and thorough packing of seed bed are necessary. Sod land 
is usually plowed in the fall or early spring. The plow is 
run just deep enough to turn the sod over. It may then 
be disked and packed by a roller. The seed is usually sown 
with a grain drill from one to two inches deep. If flax is 
raised for fiber, it is seeded thickly, as this method pro- 
duces longer stems with fewer branches and less seed. About 
two bushels to an acre is the average rate of seeding for 
fiber. If flax is raised for seed, it is thinly sown so that the 
plants may branch freely, thus producing more seed. From 
two to three pecks to an acre is the average rate to produce 
seed. It may be sown as soon as danger of frost is over, 
usually about the middle of May, and is harvested about 
the first of September. 

Harvesting. — Seed flax is cut with a grain binder, or 
with a reaper, and threshed much the same as wheat. Fiber 
flax is usually pulled by hand, tied into small bundles, and 
put into shocks to cure. Two or three weeks later the seeds 
are rubbed out, also by hand. The straw is then spread out 
thinly on the ground and left to weather for three or four 
weeks. This process is known as retting. The straw is 
then pounded or bent to separate the fiber. The fiber 
is then ready for the manufacturer. 

Hemp. — Hemp is an annual plant, and grows from 
eight to twelve feet high. 

Soil. — Rich land well fertilized gives the best results. 

Culture. — About five pecks of seed to the acre are sown 
either broadcast or with a grain drill. It usually grows 
rapidly, and is ready to harvest when the seeds ripen, 
which is usually about three and a half months from plant- 
ing time. It is cut with a mower or a corn knife and al- 



122 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

lowed to lie on the ground to ret. Hemp fiber is mostly 
used for the manufacture of carpet warp and rope. 

Questions: 

1. What do you understand by the term fiber crops? 

2. Tell what you can about the uses and culture of cotton. 

3. Tell what you can about the uses and culture of flax fiber. 
Arithmetic: 

1. If Texas produces 25% of the 12,000,000 bales of cotton pro- 
duced in the United States, how much is produced in Texas? 

2. If ^ of the 12,000,000 bales of cotton produced in the United 
States is exported, how many bales are exported? 

3. If a farmer produces 50 acres of cotton yielding 400 lbs. per 
acre, how many 500-pound bales will he produce? 

Exercises: 

1. Bring to school seeds of all the miscellaneous crops mentioned 
in this chapter. Learn to identify them. 

2. How many of these crops are raised in your neighborhood? 
Find out what each crop is used for. What part of each plant is the 
principal object of its cultivation? 

3. Try to find a rape plant and a rutabaga plant and see whether 
you can tell them apart. What are the differences? 

4. Find specimens of millet and pigeon grass. Ascertain and 
contrast their differences till you can tell them apart. 

5. Examine a flax plant or some flax straw and see whether you 
can find the fiber in it that is used for making cloth, rope, etc. In 
what part is it? 



CHAPTER VIII 
COMMON WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION 

WEEDS 

A Weed is any plant out of place. For example, rye 
growing in a wheat field or any grain plant growing in a 
corn field is as much a weed as is pigeon grass. But we 
commonly think of weeds as undesirable plants that are 
found in our fields, meadows and pastures, such as mustard, 
thistle, etc. 

Weeds are harmful in many ways. As we have learned 
in the previous lesson, they use moisture and plant food 
that are needed by the useful crops. They shade or crowd 
out other plants. They greatly increase the cost of grow- 
ing crops. They increase the cost of harvesting, by requir- 
ing more twine and by making more bulk to handle. They 
decrease the quality of grain and increase materially the 
cost of marketing. 

There is no accurate way of estimating the loss caused 
by weeds, but it is very great. Weeds cost many times 
as much as all the schools in the country. 

One of the great problems of farming is the control of 
weeds, and no farmei' can make much of a success of his 
business until he learns how to fight weeds effectively. 

Weeds get into fields in a great many different ways. 
Some weed seeds remain in the soil for several years, and 
still retain sufficient vitality to grow when given favorable 
opportunity. Weed seeds are carried into fields by water, 
by wind, by birds, by animals, by machinery, or some- 
times in the seed grain or in the grass seed. 

There are no very easy ways of controlling weeds, but 
the first essential of success is to know the common weeds 
and their habits. Then one may discover the measures 
necessary for their (u-adication. 

There are not a great many different weeds that are 
ver}^ troublesome, and it is not difficult to become so faniil- 



124 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

iar with most of the common ones as to recognize them 
when seen, either as seeds or as young or mature plants. 

Specimens. — It may prove an interesting and profitable 
pastime, at the proper season of the year, to gather speci- 
mens of all the weeds that you commonly find in your 
fields, to observe them carefully and try to find some char- 
acteristic by which you can identify each kind. You may 
desire to press, mount and name these specimens. 




Figure 52. — Yellow mustard, showing taproot, hairy stem and (1) the seed pod 
split open; (2) blossom, showing 4 petals in the form of a cross, whence this 
family of plants is named Cruciferae; (3) Seeds. 

Mounting Weeds. — Select two or three plants that 
represent their class, and dig them up in such a way as to 
show the root, the leaves, the stem, and, if possible, the 
blossoms. Lay or hang them in the shade until well wilted 
but not dry. Then spread out the parts carefully, to show 
each plainly. Lay the plants between a couple of sheets 
of blotting papei", if you have them; if not, put the plants 
l)etween newspapers, and put heavy weights on them. 
Change the papers often until the plants are dry, to pre- 



WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION 125 

vent them from molding. When dry, mount them on a 
piece of white paper by pasting over the stem and branches, 
and upon the paper at several places, little strips of paper, 
with mucilage or paste on one side. Plants carefully 
mounted will be of great value for use in identifying weeds. 

Value of Collection. — Handling plants so thoroughly 
and carefully, as is necessary to gather and mount them, 
makes one quite familiar with them. You may be sure 
your teacher would appreciate such a collection of weeds 
for use in the schoolroom, especially if they are named. 
If you do not know the name of some weed, and cannot 
find out in your neighborhood, get as nearly a perfect speci- 
men of the plant as you can (being sure to get the roots, 
stem, leaves and, if possible, the flowers or head) and send 
it to your State Experiment Station, and it will be named 
for you. If you have studied botany or expect to study 
it, you will find your work with weeds of great value. 

It is hoped that every reader will examine carefully 
the weeds commonly found in his locality, until he can 
recognize them all at sight. 
Questions: 

1. What is a weed? 

2. What do we commonly think of as weeds? 

3. How are weeds harmful? 

4. How great is the loss caused by weeds? 
Arithmetic: 

1. If a field of wheat yielding 18 bus. per acre were injured 10% 
by weeds, how much would it have yielded had it been free of weeds? 

2. If a boy can pull the mustard in an acre of grain in two days, 
what does the mustard cost the farmer, if the boy's time is worth 60c. 
per day? 

3. If a man spends an hour cleaning enough seed grain for two 
acres, how much will it cost him per acre, if his time is worth 14c. 
per hour? 

WEED SEEDS COMMON IN GRASS AND CLOVER SEED 

Clean Seed Grain. — Howevei' careful a farmer may be 
and has been for several years, some weeds are bound to 
spring up and grow from roots or from seeds which have 
lain dormant in the soil for a year, or perhaps longer, until 
recent plowing or harrowing has placed them where they 
can grow. But many farmers increase the amount of weeds 
in their fields, and often introduce new and bad varieties 



126 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 




Figure 53. — Seeds of (1) wild pea or vetch; 
(2) wild buckwheat; (3) ragweed or king- 
head; (4) corn cockle. 



by buying or using seed grain that contains these weed 
seeds. The weeds in each year's crop ma,y be lessened 
noticeably by sowing only grain free of weed seeds. 

Farmers should be 
able to recognize the 
weed seeds found in grain, 
so that they may not 
buy and use seed grain 
that contains seeds of 
dangerous weeds. 

Description. — Below 
is given a brief descrip- 
tion of five kinds of weed 
seeds most commonly 
found in grain : 

Corn cockle or blue 
cockle is a rough, black, somewhat triangular seed, about 
as large and heavy as a kernel of wheat. It is common 
in seed wheat, as it is hard to separate these seeds from 
the grain. See Figure 53. 

Ragweed or kinghead is a dark l^rown heavy seed. 
The seeds vary in size from slightly smaller to consider- 
ably larger than a kernel of wheat. They are easily recog- 
nized by the crown-like appearance of the tip. The seed 
is smaller at the base, with several ribs extending length- 
wise and terminating in as manj' points around a central 

point in the tip, giving 
it the crown-like ap- 
pearance mentioned. It 
is common in grain in 
the Red River Valley. 
See Figure 53. 

Wild oats may be 
distinguished from com- 
mon white oats by the 
following points: Wild 
oats are darker in color, 
are more slender, have 
a small tuft of hair at 

Figure 54.— Seeds of (1) wild oats; (2; tame oats, the base and have a 




WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION 127 

long, crooked awn. This awn is not alwaj'S a safe 
guide, as it is often hiokon off in the threshing machine. 
See Figuie 54. 

Wild buckwheat is a black, three-sided seed, often 
found covered with a brown husk. It is nearly the size 
of a kernel of wheat, and common in grain grown on old 
fields. See Figure 53. 

Wild pea or vetch is a heavy, dark brown or gray seed, 
round in shape and about the size of, or a little larger than, 
a kernel of wheat. It closely resembles in shape the com- 
mon garden pea, and is easily split in halves the same as 
a pea or a bean. It is common in grain. See Figure 53. 

Much more will be learned about the above weeds, if 
samples of grain are examined and specimens of weeds seed 
of each variety discussed are found and studied. 

Questions: 

1. Have you ever seen a farm that was entirely free from weeds? 

2. Tell at least two ways in which weeds get into fields. 

3. Describe each weed seed you have studied. 
Arithmetic: 

1. If a farmer sows a 50-acre field of grain with seed containing 
3% weed seed, how much land will he sow to weeds? How much 
will he lose, if his grain yields $1.5.00 worth of product per acre? 

2. If 10% of the crop in a field is weeds, and it requires 4 lbs. of 
twine per acre, costing 1.5c. per pound to bind the crop, how much 
does it cost per acre for twine to tie up the weeds? 

3. A farmer has 1,000 bus. of oats threshed; 4 lbs. in each bushel 
is weed seed. What per cent of his crop is weeds? How many pounds 
of weed seed has he? 

MORE ABOUT WEED SEEDS 

Pure Seed.^ — Sowing grass and clover seed that is not 
pure is one of the most common ways of getting bad weeds 
into the land. 

Grass seeds are so small that many weed seeds may be 
mixed with them and not be noticed unless one is perfectly 
familiar with both the grass seeds and the more common 
weed seeds. 

Where there is a good stand of grass or clover there is 
very little chance for weeds to grow. Where there is a 
poor stand — perhaps the result of sowmg poor seed, or of 
sowing on poor soil, or of winter killing — weeds are very 



128 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 




likely to spring up and make a good growth. If such a grass 
crop is cut for seed, the weed seeds are likely to be mixed 

with the grass seed. 

Hay a Cleaning Crop. — If 
a grass crop is cut for hay, 
the weeds growing in it are, 
as a rule, cut before they have 
had time to ripen seeds. For 
this reason the hay crop is 
regarded as a cleaning crop. 
Hay with weeds in it is 
very inferior in quality, and 
every cfTort should be made 
to get such a good stand of 
T7- cc Q 1 f ri\ 1 grass as to prevent weeds 

Figure 55. — Seeds of (1) quack grass & "^^ "^ . i^ . . _,, 

single; (2) quack grass with two or from grOWUlg With it. 1 he 

more seeds as they grew. They were n , j^ „ • j-j.' „ „„„J 

not separated when shelled. They first Step lU getting a gOOd 

often appear together. (3) Pigeon g^and of gl'aSS is tO SOW gOOd 

clean seed that will grow. If 
the grass seed we sow contains weed seeds, we not only 
sow the undesirable weed seeds, but also sow less grass 
seed, hence get a poorer stand. 

!■ Description. — Below is given a brief description of four 
kinds of weed seeds most common in grass seed: 

Pigeon grass seed is about one fourth as large as a grain 
of wheat. It varies in color from nearly light yellow to 
light green, and has one flat surface. In shape it is similar 

to half a bean. It is 
common in grain and in 
grass seed. 

Mustard seeds are 
smaller than a pinhead, 
almost perfectly round, 
and dark brown to nearly 
black in color. They 
resemble rutabaga seeds 
and are easily identified 
by tasting, as they have 
a sharp, spicy taste. Mustard seed is common both in grain 
and in grass seed. See Figure 56. 




Figure 56. — Seeds of (1) pigweed; (2) wild 
mustard, enlarged. 



WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION 129 

Pigweed. — The seeds of pigweed are small, shiny and 
black. They are half the size and about the shape of a 
common pin head. They are commonly found in grain 
and in grass seed. See Figure 56. 

Quack Grass. — Seeds are slender, light in weight, 
somewhat the shape of oats, but only about one half as 
long. They are green or light yellow in color. Some- 
times two or more seeds are joined together. They may 
be found in grain or in grass seed, especially in bromus. 
Quack grass seed is a httle heavier, smoother, and more 
yellowish in color than bromus seed. 

We suggest that our readers examine carefully several 
samples of grass seed found in the neighborhood; first, to 
become familiar with common grass seeds, as red and alsike 
clover, timothy, alfalfa, and bromus; and also to learn to 
identify the weed seeds mentioned above, and to readily 
observe and know them when seen in a sample of grass seed. 
Questions: 

1. What is a- very common way of getting weeds on a farm? 

2. Why is it easier to get bad weed seeds in grass seed than in 
seed grain? 

3. For what reason is a hay crop regarded as a cleaning crop? 
Arithmetic: 

1. A bushel of timothy seed weighs 45 lbs. What is it worth at 
5c. per lb.? 

2. A bushel of clover seed weighs 60 lbs. What is it worth at 
15c. per lb.? 

3. There are 32 quarts in a bushel. Clover seed weighs 60 lbs. 
per bushel. What does one quart weigh? Timothy seed weighs 45 
lbs. per bushel. What does one quart weigh? 

4. If a farmer seeded 10 acres of land with grass seed containing 
10% weed seeds, how much land would he sow to weeds? 

CLASSES OF WEEDS 

Habits of Weeds. — If the habits of weeds are studied, 
it will be found that all weeds may be placed under three 
classes: annuals, those that live but one year; biennials, 
those that live two years; and perennials, those that live 
from year to year. 

Annual weeds are those weeds that start from seed, 
make their full growth, produce seed, and die in one year. 
In this class we find such common weeds as pigeon grass, 
lamb's quarter, wild oats, wild barley, mustard, corn cockle, 
wild buckwheat, French weed, ragweed, etc. 



130 



ELEMENTS OF FAR 31 PRACTICE 



To Eradicate Annual Weeds. — Keep weed seeds out of 
the soil and prevent the weeds that grow in the field from 
producing seed. To accomplish this, the following meth- 
ods will be found useful. Use only clean seed; that is, do 
not plant the weed seeds. Seed the fields down to tame 
grass for hay or pasture one or two years in every three to 
six years. Plant the land to cultivated crops such as corn, 
or potatoes, once or twice in every three to five cr six years, 




Figure 57. — A crop of clover hay, a good thing to hold weeds in check. 

SO that it may be cultivated and the weeds killed in that 
way. In other words, clean seed and rotation of crops will 
make it easy to control annual weeds. 

Biennial weeds are those that live two years and then 
die. The first year they start from seed and make part 
of their growth. They live over winter, then the second 
year complete their growth, produce seed and die. There 
are but two common biennial weeds, bull thistle and burdock. 
We believe every country boy and girl know these two com- 
mon weeds. These two weeds do not cause trouble in cul- 
tivated fields, but are very bothersome in old pastures, 
along roadsides, and in waste places. 

To eradicate biennial weeds it is but necessary to keep 
them from producing seed. The roots will die in two 
years, so if no new seed is produced they will disappear. 
If the land can be plowed and planted to corn or grain 
for a few years, biennial weeds will disappear, as the plow- 



T/EED8 AND THEIR ERADICATION 



131 



ing each year prevents the plants from gettinp; old enough 
to produce seed. In pastures, mowing the weeds down 
close to the ground several times during the summer will 
prevent them from seeding, and, if this is done for two years, 
the weeds will disappear. It is difficult to mow these 
weeds close enough so that they will not produce some seed. 
The surest method of getting rid of them where the land 
cannot be plowed is to use a spud, (an implement similar 
to a chisel with a long handle) with which the plants can be 
cut off an inch or so below the ground. This is a slow pro- 
cess in a large field, but it is sure. 




Figure 58. — Roots and stems of (juack grass. 
several plants are attached. 



Note jointed root stalks anil tliut 



132 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

Perennial weeds grow year after year, or until something 
unusual happens to kill them. In this class are found 
the very worst weeds with which the farmer has to contend. 
Some of the more common and more troublesome peren- 
nial weeds are quack grass, Canada thistle, sow thistle, 
morning-glory, and curled dock. These weeds not only 
grow from seed, but persist in growing and spreading even 
if prevented from seeding. They grow from underground 
root stalks or stems. When the land is plowed or culti- 
vated, instead of the roots' being killed they are broken into 
pieces which start to grow and produce new plants. 

To eradicate perennial weeds is one of the most difficult 
jobs a farmer has to do. Many farmers do get rid of them, 
but some farmers just give up and say it cannot be done. 
To kill them one must not only prevent the plants from 
seeding, but must kill the roots as well. The roots can 
be killed only by digging them out of the ground and re- 
moving them from the field, or by starving them out. The 
roots can be starved only by preventing them from forming 
leaves. This can be done best by plowing the land very 
thoroughly, and then by disking and harrowing very care- 
fully and very often for about three months. This requires 
lots of work, and is very expensive; but, if the work is care- 
fully done, even quack grass can be eradicated. 

Spraying. — Certain weeds, such as mustard, ragweed, 
and dandehons, may be killed by spraying with chemicals, 
even when growing in a grain field without injuring the 
grain. Either sulphate of iron or sulphate of copper may 
be used, the former being the cheaper. The solution should 
be sprayed on the weeds by means of a machine made for 
this purpose. For mustard or dandelions mix 100 pounds 
of iron sulphate in 50 gallons of water. Stir thoroughly and 
spray on a bright day. About 50 gallons is required for an 
acre. On the general diversified farm, however, where crops 
are rotated, and hay and pasture crops and cultivated crops 
are grown, the kinds of weeds that can be killed by spraying 
are kept well in check by regular methods of cultivation. 

Bulletins. — For further information about weeds, how 
to identify them and eradicate them, write to your State 
Experiment Station and ask for bulletins on weeds. 



WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION 133 

Questions: 

1. Tell what you can about annual weeds. Name some of them, 
and tell how to eradicate them. 

2. Name two common biennial weeds, and tell how to destroy 
them. 

3. Name the worst perennial weeds, and tell how to kill them. 

4. When might spraying be preferable to other means of erad- 
ication? 

Arithmetic: 

1. If a man's time is worth 16c. per hour, and each horse's time 
is worth 10c. per hour, how much does it cost per day for the labor of a 
man and four horses? (10 hours for a working day.) 

2. If a man and 4 horses can harrow 40 acres per day, how much 
does it cost per acre to harrow land? (Is not harrowing a cheap way 
to kill weeds?) 

3. Morning-glories twine about and kill 200 hills of corn on an 
acre. What part of the crop is thus destroyed? (There are 3,240 
hills per acre.) 

4. If iron sulphate costs $20 a ton, how much would it cost per 
acre for material at the rate of 50 pounds to the acre? 

Exercises: 

1. Bring to school each day a different kind of a weed and see 
how long you can continue bringing a different one each day. 

2. It will be a very valuable exercise for you to gather, press and 
mount samples of all of the weeds you can find, so that you will know 
them wherever you see them. 

3. Put a handful 6f salt on a dandelion plant and see what hap- 
pens in a day or two. 

4. Bring to school samples of uncleaned grain. Separate the 
weed seeds from the grain. Learn to identify as many different weed 
seeds as you can. 



CHAPTER IX 
A GARDEN 

ITS IMPORTANCE 

Value. — A garden is a very small but important part 
of a farm. After the long winter, during which we have 
lived largely on bread, meat, canned vegetables and fruits, 
there is nothing more delightful than to get the fresh veg- 
etables from the garden. They are succulent, easily digest- 
ed, palatable and nutritious. 

A variety of good vegetables means much to every 
housewife, who must plan and prepare at least one thousand 
meals during the year. If she has at hand an abundance 
of fresh vegetables for summer use, and of the same canned 
for winter, the question of preparing suitable and healthful 
meals is greatly simplified. 

For the boy or girl who wishes to help the mother, and 
at the same time learn a great deal about soil and how to 
cultivate it, about plants and how to grow them, there 
is nothing on the farm that offers a greater opportunity 
than the garden. A very few minutes of well directed 
effort will work wonders in the production of many vege- 
tables, such as radishes, onions, etc. 

Income from a Garden. — Some boys and girls, living 
near town, may earn considerable by caring for a few va- 
rieties of vegetables and selling the surplus in town. But 
boys or girls have right at home a good market for as much 
as they can raise. They may not, and perhaps should not, 
expect to receive money for what they raise for home use, 
but they may lightly consider that they earn all that the 
vegetables would bring, if sold. Vegetables have a value 
whether sold or used at home. Some farmers seem to think 
that their living costs nothing. It is true that they do 
not pay out money for much of their food ; but if they would 
consider, for example, the vegetables used worth what might 



A GARDEN 



135 



be received for them, if they were sold, everj^ farmer would 
see that what is used from a garden amounts to much, 
and that a garden is a very important part of a farm. 
The boys and girls may like to keep an account of the 
amount and value of garden produce used, to see how much 
a garden is reall}'- worth. Pulling weeds may prove less 
tedious to a boy who is thinking of how, by his efforts, he 
is increasing a yield which he is going to record. 

An Account with the Garden. — To keep an account of 
the garden produce, any note book of convenient size may 
be used. Devote one or more pages to each variety of 
vegetables. Each boy or girl should consult his parents 

and agree upon a price 
for the produce, — such 
as three cents per dozen 
for radishes and green 
onions, one half a cent 
a head for lettuce, fifteen 
cents a peck for peas, 
string beans, etc. On 
the page of the account 
book devoted to radishes, 
record the price agreed 
upon for radishes; and 
it might make it more 
interesting to record 
also the date when the seed was sown. 

As soon as any variety begins to yield, put down on 
the page devoted to it the date it was first ready for use 
and the amount gathered. During the summer each boy 
or girl will find out at night what vegetable^ were used that 
day and the amount of each gathered, either for immediate 
use or for canning, and record ttie date and amount. 

In the fall, when cvcr\i:hing has been gathered from 
the garden, your note book will show the amount and 
value of each variety used, sold or stored. The sum of the 
values of all the varieties of vegetables will be tlu^ worth 
of the garden. It would be interesting, also, to keep a I'ccord 
of any expense for seed or stock and an estimate of the 
value of any labor spent upon it. 




Figure 59. — Flat onion on left, globe on 
right. Globe onions yield more and usually 
sell better. 



136 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

Questions: 

1. Why is a garden important? 

2. How does a good garden help the mother? 

3. How is it of vahie to a boy or girl? 

4. How may we find the value of a garden? 
Arithmetic: 

1. How many dozen carrots in 3 rows 121 ft. long, if the carrots 
are 2 in. apart in the row? How much are they worth at 5c. per dozen? 

2. What part of an acre is occupied by 3 rows of carrots 121 ft. 
long, if each row occupies a space 12 in. wide? (There are 43,560 sq. 
ft. in an acre.) 

3. If a boy spends 2 hours each week for 8 weeks in caring for 3 
rows of radishes 121 ft. long, how many hours will he spend? How 
much is his time worth at 10c. per hour? 

PLAN AND PREPARATION 

Location. — As many trips are made to a garden during 
the summer, it should be so located that access to it from 
the house is easy and convenient; and, instead of being 
located in some little corner where most of the work must 
be done by hand, it should be accessible from the barn or 
field, so that most of the work may be done with a horse 
and cultivator. A good place for a garden is on a south 
slope sheltered by a grove. 

Size. — There is waste land on most farms; and, as long 
as this is true, there is no excuse for skimping the garden. 
It should be of sufficient size that room may be given to 
each variety of vegetable, to permit cultivation with horse 
labor. A strip about a rod wide at each end of the garden 
should be seeded to grass, on which to turn when plowing 
and cultivating. 

Soil. — The soil for a garden should be very rich and 
productive. More work is required per acre on garden 
than on field crops; hence the importance of getting good 
crops to pay for the labor. If grain is sown on soil that 
will produce but half a crop, six to ten dollars an acre is 
lost, while, if but half a crop is raised in a garden, owing to 
the poor condition of the soil, many times as much is lost, 
because a good garden may yield from $100 to $500 worth 
of produce per acre. 

Preparation of Soil. — Land for the garden should be 
heavily manured. From twenty to fifty loads per acre 
may be used. Well rotted manure is best, but other manure 



A GARDEN 



137 



will do. It is well to plow in the fall, so that the land will 
settle down and be less likely to dry out. Fall plowing is 
also helpful in destroying dangerous insects and worms. 
Early spring plowing will do; but, in either case, much disk- 
ing and harrowing should be given the land in the spring, 

so as to make the soil very fine 
and mellow before the garden 
seeds are planted This early 
harrowing helps to warm up the 
soil and kills many weeds; also 
retards the evaporation of moist- 
ure. It is a good plan to use 
a planker or pulverizer to break 
up all lumps, as securing a fine 
surface soil makes planting and 
cultivating much easier. 

Arrangement. — The rows 
should extend the long way of 
the garden. Vegetables which 
are planted in rows close together 
(12 to 20 inches) as onions, rad- 
ishes, carrots, beets, lettuce, tur- 
nips, etc., should be on one side 
of the garden. Cabbage, beans, 
peas, sweet corn, potatoes, etc., 
with rows 2}/^ to 3^ feet apart, 
should be together. Such running 
vines as squashes, melons, and 
cucumbers, which require rows 
five to seven feet apart, should 
be together in another part of the 
garden. This arrangement allows 
the best use of the horse cult- 
ivator. If a row of onions and 
a row of potatoes were planted side l)y side, a good 
cultivation of the potatoes would be likely to cover the 
onions. This plan also permits the best use of the small 
hand drill in planting and of the small hand cultivator in 
cultivating. Everything possible should be done, in the 
arrangement, planning and preparation of the garden, to 




Figure 60. — Garden arranged for 
convenient cultivation. 1. Rows 
14 in. to 18 in. apart for onions 
lettuce, beets, radishes, turnips, 
carrots. 2. Rows about six feet 
apart for cucumbers, melons, etc. 
3. Rows three feet apart for sweet 
corn, potatoes. 4. Rows 4 feet 
apart for strawberries, tomatoes, 
etc. 6. Asparagus 3 or 4 feet 
from other plants. 6. Rows about 
6. feet apart for berry bushes. 



138 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

reduce tlic amount of labor required to plant, cultivate and 

harvest the crop. 

Questions: 

1. Why should the garden be located near the house? 

2. What can you say about the soil and its proper preparation 
for the garden? 

3. What arrangement would j'ou make of the different crops 
in planting? 

Arithmetic: 

1. How many cabbages can one raise on an acre, if they are 
planted 2 ft. apart each way? 

2. How many acres of land in a field 10 rods wide and 16 rods 
long? 

3. How many rows of onions, planted with the rows 1 foot 
apart, can be planted on a field 10 rods wide? If the field is 16 rods 
long, how long will all the rows of onions be? 

SOME COMMON VEGETABLES 

Classification. — Vegetables may be classified under three 
heads, according to their ability to withstand climatic con- 
ditions : 

(1) Winter vegetables, or those that can be left in the 
ground all winter without injury, such as rhubarb, asparagus, 
horse-radish and parsnips; 

(2) Hardy spring vegetables, or those that are not in- 
jured by frost in the spring, such as onions, radishes, lettuce, 
cabbage, cauliflower, Swiss chard, peas, rutabagas, carrots, 
and celery; 

(3) Tender vegetables, or those that are killed by frost, 
such as beans, tomatoes, melons, corn, cucumbers and squash. 

Varieties. — There are usually several varieties of each 
class of vegetables. For example, in tomatoes, there is 
the Earliana, Beauty, Ponderosa, Stone, Early Red, Acme, 
Dwarf Champion, etc.; in peas, the American Wonder, 
Marrowfat, Telephone, First and Best, Extra Early, etc. 
It is important for the home gardener to grow only the 
varieties that one likes personally. In market gardening 
one's personal tastes should not be considered, but it is 
necessary to study very carefully the market demand and 
grow what will sell readily whether it appeals to you or not. 
A very desirable vegetal^le for the home garden may be 
almost valueless in a market garden, because it will not 
stand handling. 



A GARDEN 



139 



Marketing. — It seems to be quite generally believed that 
farming consists simply in growing things. This idea does 
not represent the case. Products must be sold to advantage 
or there is no profit in growing them. Vegetables are dif- 
ficult to market, because most garden products deteriorate 
very rapidly after being harvested. It is, therefore, im- 
portant that one give very careful study to the selection of 
varieties, growing products of good quality, harvesting at 

the proper time and in 
the proper way, packing 
them in an attractive, con- 
venient package, and then 
delivering them promptly 
and in good condition, 
when they are wanted. 

Perennial Sorts. — 
Asparagus, horse - radish 
and rhubarb are peren- 
nials; that is, they grow 
year after year without 
being replanted. It is 
important, therefore, to 
start them where they are 
want ed permanently. 
Roots are usually secured 
ratlier than seed, and set 
out in good rich, mellow 
soil. If the soil is kept 
cultivated and well fertihzed, it is necessary to harvest 
only what is wanted. Parsnips are biennial; that is, they 
live but two years. Seed is planted in the spring early and 
rather thickly, so as to insure a good stand. The plants 
are thinned out later, leaving a plant every two to four 
inches in the row. The roots, the part eaten, may be dug 
in the fall, and stored, or, if preferred, the roots maybe left 
in the ground all winter and harvested in the spring. 

Hardy Vegetables. — Onions are a popular and important 
vegetable. They are grown chiefly from seed, planted as 
early in the spring as the soil maj^ be prepared. The seed 
js sown in drills from twelve inches to sixteen inches apart. 



m 


J-. 


i 






kt: V ■' 




^^^ 








\-^~s- 



Figure 61. — Some notable turnips. 



Ill 



ELEMENTt< (>/' FARM ritAVTlVE 



'Plio soil is kopl woll cullivnlod and froo from woods. Whon 
Iho plnnls nro nboul two indues liifi;li, ihoy arc (hiniiod to 
lojivp about ono planl about oviMy (wo inches. WIumi th(^ 
tops weaken just above tlie onion and die down, the onions 
are pulled, dried, topped and stored. Quite small onions 
are soinetini(>s pulled nnd dri(>d ;in(i kepi over winter, then 
set out in the spiin^. 'Tluw ji;r()w (juiekly and ruinish green 
onions e.'iily. I'hey are called sets. 




Finiu'o 02. — A liolil of oniona. 

H;ulish(>s :\vc i;rown I'roni scimI. They require rich, 
moist soil. ;ind unl(\ss j^rown r;ipidly are very inha'ior in 
(piMlily. 'riu* seed is sown (>;ii"ly in the sprinj;- for an eMi'ly 
(■rt)p. Sevi>r;d pl!intin,ii;s twc usually made ;it intiM'VJils of 
two or ihwc w(H>ks for latiM- use. Radislu^s should be largo 
(Miough to us(> in four to six weeks Mft(>r the s(>i>d is [)lanted. 

l\»;is ;ire sown ejirly in spring; (>arly v;irietii*s for early 
use, liiier vaii(>lit>s for iatiM' use. Thtw iwo sown in drills 
fi'om (wi) Mud a half to four fet^t apart, d(>pi>nding upon the 
\;iii(My. 11 is desiiMbl(> in small gardens to furnish sonuMhing 
on which (he \im>s niay climb, as (lu\v are n(.)( s(rong enough 
(o staml tMec( alone. Hwarf varieties neeil no suppor(. 

liCduce, carrots and Swiss cliard are grown in about 



A GAUDIJN 141 

ihc s;im(> \v:iy ;is i;i dishes. ( ';il)l)Mji;(> ;iih1 (•.•lulidowcr arc 
usii;illy li;ms|)l;mlc(l; tli;it is, llu> sihmI is sown in !)()X(*s 
ill lh(> house or <i;i('(>iihous(> for viivly VMriclics, or in IxmIs in 
the {»jir(l(Mi I'oi' later v;iri(>li('s. TIumi (ho small plants arc 
later set out in the field wluM-e tlu\v tiw. to grow. 

C^elery is not conunonly }i;ro\vn, hut it should he, and 
may he fiiown on any good corn soil. It requires rich, 
moist soil. The S(H'd is first sown in hoxes, or heds, and 
(ians|)laii(('(l. It is often ti"aiisi)l;inted twice, first from the 
small IxmIs or hox(>s to larti;cr heds, (hen Ijilcr to I he field. 
I*\)r CMrly varieties the seed is sown ;i month or more hefore 
the soil outside can he worked. For l:iie v.'iricfics it, is sown 
after the soil outside is in good condition. The plants are 
set in well j)repared, ri(^h soil, in lows three to four feet 
apart, and the plants ahout six inches apjirt. in the row. 
Celery is kept cultivated as any crop. Somelimes a mulch 
of njanure or str;iw is placed helween the lows to check the 
growth of wcM'ds, :m(l regain moisture. It^ is necessary to 
keep soil pa('k(>d against the plants on either side to keep 
them fiom spi(>a(ling. Celery is always hl(>ach(>(l hefore 
it. is us(>(l. This may he done hy pl;icing honids on either 
side of the rows, or hy hanking u|) the I'ows with soil from 
hetween the rows. If the celery is to he us{^(lintho wint<>r, 
it is put into the c(^llar gre(>n, then hleac^luMl as needed. 
Bl(>a(!hing is nuMH^ly growing c(»lei'y away from the light. 
Celery is stored in the c(>llar hy piicking the plants tightly 
in hoxes with s.-md in the hottom into which the roots are 
{)laced. It is kept as cool as possihk^ without ficezing. 
To hl(\ich in the celkir, k(>ep the pkints moist, and warm 
enough so that they will grow. 

Tender Vegetables. R(vins are i)lan(,ed in the spring 
after all danger of fiost is |)a.st, in rows two to two and a 
half feet apart,, a,nd with from three to six scmmIs |)ei' foot 
in the row. (lood clean cultivation is all that is i-eciuiicd. 
String h(vins are s(>cured from variet,i(^s planted esp(>cially 
for that purpose". Shellcul heans, the navy varieties, are 
usually planted. 

Sweet (rorn is planted and cultivated the same as field 
corn, except usually in a much smaller way. 



142 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

Tomatoes are grown from seed planted, usually in 
boxes in the house, in gi-eenliouses, or in sheltered places. 
When all danger of frost is past, the plants are transplanted 
to the field or garden. A very few plants will supply the 
needs of the family. 

Melons, cucumbers and squash are very tender and 
easily killed by frost. They are planted usually in hills 
fi'om six to nine feet apart each way, on rich well prepared 
land. They require cultivation and plenty of moisture. 

Questions: 

1. Name three classes of vegetables and several common vege- 
tables to be found under each class. 

2. Describe briefly the methods you would use in growing a 
crop of onions; a crop of celery. 

3. Tell all you can about marketing vegetables. 
Arithmetic: 

1. If one applies 25 tons of manure per acre, how much does it 
cost at $2.50 per ton? 

2. If an acre of onions yields 600 bushels, what is the value of 
the crop at 85c. per bushel? 

3. How many celery plants can one produce on an acre with 
rows 3 ft. apart and plants 6 in. aoart in the row? (There are 43,560 
s<i. ft. in an acre.) 

Exercises; 

1. Make a list of all the different things that you eat that 
come from the garden. 

2. Draw a map of your home garden and then make a chart of 
it showing what you would plant to have a good well-balanced garden. 
Show the distance apart vou would plant the rows. (See chart, page 
128.) 

3. Who raises the best garden in the neighborhood? Visit this 
garden and ask all the questions you can of the owner so as to find out 
why this is the best garden. Then write a short story telling how to 
raise a good garden. 

4. Are you a member of a boys' and girls' garden club? If not, 
organize such a club in your school. You will not only help yourself, 
but you will help all the boys and girls who join anil your school as 
well. Your teacher or your county superintendent can hel]> you to 
get a garden club started. 



CHAPTER X 
FRUIT ON THE FARM 

ADVANTAGES OF FRUIT 

Succulent Food. — That fruit is a h(>althful form of 
food is roco}i;iiiz('(l by all, yet there are many persons liv- 
ing on farms wiio seldom have as much fruit as is neces- 
sary for the health and comfort of tlu^ family. The need 




Figure G3. — An exhibit ot fine apples 



of succulent food for animals is met by sui)i)lyin}>; ensilage 
or roots, yet in many homes the need of succulence in the 
family diet, though as necessary and easily supplied, is 
apparently not recognized. Although the juices of fruits 
help to supply tiie body witli li(iuid and furnish it with 



144 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

needful mineral substances, these products are especially 
acceptable and suitable items of diet during the warmer 
months, when we do not desire so much food of a heat- 
producing nature. 

Home Products. — The home-grown fruits surpass any 
that can be purchased; for during the summer they may 
be had clean and fresh, and are very different from the dusty 
and inferior ones which are often all that the markets have 
to offer. Such fresh fruit is equally as much better than 
the market product when canned. 

Another great advantage in raising fruit is that the 
family will then be well supplied, while there are few farm 
families that will pay the necessary price to secure the 
amount needed, if it must be purchased. 

Every housekeeper knows the value of a good supply 
of fresh fruit during the summer and fall and the pleasure 
that is derived from the canned fruit stored away for winter 
use. The jellies and preserves form a healthful and pala- 
table dessert at any time, and are always ready. 

Canned fruit juice, which may be had in large quanti- 
ties where fruit is plentiful, is perhaps the most appetizing 
and healthful drink for the sick, and is equally as refreshing 
for those who are well. 

Ease of Supply. — It is neither laborious nor expensive 
to provide an abundance of both large and small fruits. 
A small patch of strawberries will produce more than plenty 
for an ordinary family. Raspberries, gooseberries and cur- 
rants may be grown at little loss of space along the garden 
fence. A small orchard, also, will more than suffice for fam- 
ily needs. Ordinary cultivation and occasional spraying 
are the only demands upon labor. With this attention, 
however, the results from every point of view will be bene- 
ficial and delightful. 
Questions: 

1. What kind of food do we need in addition to the protein, 
earbohydrates and fats? 

2. What class of foods supply bulk and succulence? 

3. What are the advantages of raising fruit for home use? 
Arithmetic: 

1. If a family of six uses 1 qt. of canned fruit per day, how many 
quarts will they use in 6 months? 

2. If a family of six uses the equivalent of lyz quarts of fresh 



FRUIT ON THE FARM 145 

fruit per day, how many quarts would be required to supply them a 
year? How much are these berries worth at 10c. per quart? 

3. If a man spends 5 hours per week for 12 weeks caring for fruit, 
to produ(;e enough fruit for a family of six as given in example 2, how 
many hours would he spend? What is his time worth at 15c. per hour? 

STRAWBERRIES 

Adaptability. — The strawberry may be grown in almost 
any locality, from the far north to the extreme south. It 
is the most widely distributed of the cultivated fruits, and 
perhaps the most universally popular. 

Varieties. — There are several hundred varieties of straw- 
berries listed. Some varieties are particularly adapted 
to the cooler summers and to the soil conditions of the 
northern districts, while others are adapted more partic- 
ularly to the southern conditions. At least one or more 
varieties may be selected for any district. 

There are varieties of strawberries that have imper- 
fect or pistillate flowers, and varieties that have perfect 
flowers, or flowers containing both stamens and pistils. 
The perfect may be distinguished from the imperfect only 
by the flower. When buying plants, one must depend 
upon the knowledge and honesty of the dealer to secure 
either plants with perfect flowers or a sufficient number of 
them to properly fertilize the pistillate flowers. The pis- 
tillate varieties are often the best bearers, and are not ob- 
jectionable when planted with staminate varieties, but are 
fruitless when planted alone. However, to simplify matters 
it is wise for the amateur to select the perfect varieties. 

Soil. — It is generally conceded that strawberries are 
most successfully raised on sandy or gravelly loam. New 
clover sod makes a desirable soil, but it is not safe to use 
old sod land, on account of the larvae of many injurious 
insects which are likely to be in the soil and feed upon the 
young plants. To guard against such, it is well to have the 
strawberry crop follow some cultivated crop, as potatoes, 
beans or corn, for the cultivation is quite likely to kill the 
larvae. 

Preparation of the Soil. — The land should be well fer- 
tilized. For four rows one hundred feet long, about what 
would supply the ordinary family, a load of well decomposed 



146 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

stable manure is needed. It is preferable to plow this 
under in the fall. The surface should be kept pulverized 
in the spring, until it is ready for the plants. 

The Plants.^ — Strawberries are propagated by runners. 
The runners grow out from the old plants, and at the joints 
take root and form new plants. It is these new plants 















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Figure G4. — A strawberry bed with straw raked between the rows for winter pro- 
tection. It holds moisture and checks the growth of weeds. 

which should be set out. They are distinguished from the 
old by their white roots. Old plants have dark roots. 

The plants, when taken up to be transplanted, should 
be trimmed of dead leaves or of too large a growth of leaves, 
and of all pieces of runners. Many roots are desirable; 
but, as they may make planting difficult, the large roots are 
usually trimmed. 

If the plants purchased seem weak or wilted, or if the 
field at the time is exceedingly dry, they should not be set 
immediately. It is much safer to shake them out well and 
put them close together in a row, where they may be easily 
protected from the wind and kept well watered. Here 
they will freshen, perhaps start to grow, and be ready for 
the field when conditions there are more favorable. 



FRUIT ON THE FARM 147 

Setting of Plants. — Strawberry plants may be set out 
at any time, from early spring until midsummer, provided 
the plants are strong and the ground moist. The earlier 
they are set, however, the better, as they then have a longer 
growing season and the roots seem to form more abundantly 
in the cooler weather of spring. 

In setting the plants, the roots should be shaken or 
spread out as naturally as possible and the dirt firmly 
packed about them. Care must be taken to set the plants 
the right depth. The terminal bud should not be hidden, 
yet the upper portion of the root should be well covered. 
The safe rule is to set the plants as nearly as possible the 
depth they were before. 

System of Planting. — Strawberries are either set in hills 
three by three feet apart, or in matted rows. When set 
in matted rows, the common practice is to set out single 
rows four feet apart, plants twelve inches apart in the rows. 
The runners are then allowed to cover a space of from six 
to nine inches on either side of the plants, making a matted 
row from twelve to eighteen inches wide and leaving a space 
of from thirty to thirty-six inches between the rows for 
cultivation and convenience in harvesting. This space may 
be reduced, and there is one advantage in the narrower 
space — i. e., the runners may be allowed to occupy it and 
the old row be plowed up. This saves resetting. 

Cultivation. — Cultivation should be shallow, yet deep 
enough to destroy weeds and frequent enough to keep the 
surface well pulverized and to maintain a surface mulch. 
Moisture is then more readily admitted and evaporation is 
checked to a considerable extent. 

Care must be taken to keep the plants from getting 
too thick in the row. If too thick, they are less vigorous 
and produce smaller and poorer berries. When set in rows, 
enough new plants may be set to make a continuous row 12 to 
18 inches wide, with plants not nearer together than 6 inches. 

To protect the plants from frequent freezing and thaw- 
ing, a mulch is applied. It is usually of coarse material, 
as hay, corn stalks, or straw, and is applied late in autumn 
or in the early winter. It should protect the plants, yet 
not smother them. Ordinarily it should be about three 



148 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

inches thick and extend over the entire bed. In the spring 
most of the mulch is taken from over the row and put in 
the spaces between, where it preserves moisture and keeps 
down weeds. The portion left on the row aids in keeping 
the fruit off the ground. 
Questions: 

1. What is the best soil for strawberries? 

2. How should the soil be prepared? 

3. What can you say of the plants to be set? 

4. When and how should plants be set? 

5. What care should the strawberry bed receive? 
Arithmetic: 

1. If strawberry plants are set in rows 4 ft. apart and plants 2 
ft. apart in the row, how long will four rows need to be to accommo- 
date 200 plants? How much space will they occupy? 

2. If strawberries yield 3,000 quarts per acre, how much is the 
crop worth at 10c. per quart? 

3. If strawberries yield 3,000 quarts per acre, how many quarts 
should 4 rows 100 ft. long and 4 ft. apart yield? 

RASPBERRIES 

Adaptability. — The raspberry, like the strawberry, has 
some species which are adapted to almost every localit}^ 
One type of the red raspberry extends over a territory from 
Arizona to Alaska. There seems, however, to be no variety 
adapted to conditions in the western Dakotas, eastern 
Montana and Wyoming, or for parts of California, New 
Mexico and Texas. 

Varieties. — The name raspberry, as we use the term 
to-day, embraces four species of plants, the European, a 
foreign species, the Native Red, the Black Cap and the 
Purple Cane, a cross between Black Cap and Red Rasp- 
berry. 

Soil. — In their wild state, raspberries are frequently 
found growing upon a variety of soils, but, like other crops, 
they thrive better and yield more abundantly upon moderate- 
ly rich soil. The varieties of red raspberries seem to require 
for best production a richer soil than most of the varieties 
of black raspberries, the former giving larger yields on moist 
clay loam and the latter on sandy loam. Preferably rasp- 
berries should follow a cultivated crop. Beans, peas, and 
potatoes are good preparatory crops. 

Propagation. — The red raspberries are propagated by 



FRUIT ON THE FARM 



149 



root sprouts. Young succulent plants may be transplanted, 
if a part of the parent root is taken with them; but one- 
year-old root sprouts are better. The purple raspberries may 
be propagated by sprouts or by tip layering, according to 
variety. 

The black raspberries are propagated by stolons or 
layers. To secure new plants, the branches are bent over 
some time during the summer and their tips covered lightly 
with earth. They then root quickly. These new plants 




Figure 65. — Uncovering raspberries in the spring. They are laid down in the fall 
and covered with earth to protect them from thawing and freezing. 

are left attached to the old plant until the following spring, 
when the old stem or branch is cut about eight inches above 
the new roots. The plants are then ready for transplanting. 

Setting of Plants. — The red raspberries may be set out 
during either spring or fall, fall setting perhaps being more 
generally favored, as sprouts come out very early in the 
spring and are very liable to be broken off, if transplanting 
is attempted at this season. 

The black raspberries, tip rooters, should be trans- 
planted in the spring, as they are almost sure to winter- 
kill if disturbed in the fall. 



150 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

Plants of either kind are usually set two in a hill, hills 
three feet apart and rows seven feet apart. If the rows 
extend north and south, the fruit during ripening time will 
be somewhat shaded by the new growth, which is an advan- 
age. The spacing may be reduced, but wide spacing has 
some advantages, chief among which is the fact that it 
admits plenty of sunshine and makes cultivation possible 
even when the branches are bearing fruit. 

When the new plants are set, they are cut off close to 
the ground, and are not allowed to bear fruit the first year. 

The red raspberries, propagated by root, sprouts, should 
be set a little deeper than they were originally. The black 
raspberries, propagated by stolons or layers, should be set 
about their original depth. 

Cultivation. — Clean cultivation is especially necessary 
for the red raspberry, as it spreads rapidly if not checked, 
soon exhausting its vitality. The spaces between the hedges 
should be plowed at least once a year, and perhaps less in- 
jury is done to the roots if spring plowing is practiced. The 
subsequent cultivating should loosen the soil only to a depth 
of two or three inches. 

Pruning. — Raspberries require summer and winter prun- 
ing. The summer pruning consists in stopping the young 
shoots when they are about eighteen inches high. This 
tends to produce branches and root sprouts and so increase 
the wood growth. In the winter cut out all stems that 
have produced fruit, and dead and diseased ones. 

Winter Protection. — In some severe climates raspber- 
ries need winter protection. The roots are loosened at one 
side of each plant, and the top is bent over and covered 
with earth. A layer of corn fodder or straw may be added 
later, if more protection seems warranted. This covering 
should be removed in the spring, and the plants raised as 
soon as danger of freezing and thawing is past. 
Questions: 

1. How general is raspberry culture? 

2. How many types of raspberries are there? 

3. What soil does each type require? 

4. How is each type propagated? 

5. Tell what you can of time and manner of setting each type? 

6. Describe cultivation and pruning of each type. 



FRVIT ON THE FARM 



151 



Arithmetic: 

1. If one plants 4 rows of raspberries 100 ft. long, with 2 plants 
per hill 2 ft. apart in the row, how many plants are required? 

2. If one has four 100-ft. rows of raspberries, rows 7 ft. apart, 
how much space do they occupy'? 

3. If raspberries yield 2,500 qts. per acre, how many quarts 
should one get from a patch 28 ft. by 100 ft.? 

APPLES 

Adaptability. — By selection and grafting, varieties of 
apples have been obtained which are very hardy and adapt 
themselves to wide ranges of territory and vast differences 
in temperature. Apple-growing is no longer confined to 
the warmer portions of the South, but is a possibility in the 
colder sections of the North. Some very choice apples 
are raised in districts of short summers and cold winters. 

Soil.— The chief re- 
quirement of soil for 
apple production 
seems to be that it 
contains an abund- 
ance of plant food. 
The poorer the soil, 
the more careful man- 
agement becomes nec- 
essary. The best con- 
dition for apples 
seems to be a rich, 
well-drained soil that 
will retain moisture. 
Preparation of the 
Soil. — Some prefer to 
raise apples in a sod- 
ded tract. Where such 
is the case, good clover 
or prairie sod need not 
be broken up. Holes 
should be dug large 
enough to accommo- 
date the tree without 

Figure 66. — Picking anples?. Note care ]• „ •, , ,.„, + ., 

taken to prevent bruising, as bruised "Owduig itS rOOtS 

apples do not keep well. Where CUltlVatlOU 01 




152 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

the orchard is planned the soil should be brought into a til- 
lable condition before trees are set. The latter is undoubt- 
edly the more successful method. 

The Trees. — In selecting trees to set, perhaps more 
attention should be paid to the roots than to the shape 
of the top. The essentials are a good root system and a 
thrifty top. 

Apple trees do not come true from seed. That is, seed 
from Ben Davis apples will not produce Ben Davis apple 
trees. Trees true to variety are secured by grafting branches 
of trees of desired varieties on roots secured by planting 
apple seeds. In severe climates it is very essential that 
these roots be hardy. To be sure of getting suitable stock, 
it is wise to order trees for planting only from dealers in whom 
you have confidence. Trees should not be more than four 
years or less than one year old. 

Trees for northern growers should be taken from the 
nursery in the fall, and kept through the winter in a cool 
cellar or be buried in trenches in the field. 

Setting the Trees. — In sections of severe winters, apple 
trees should be set in the spring, as they are almost sure 
to winter-kill, if set in the fall. In sections particularly 
adapted to apple culture, the trees may be taken from the 
nursery in the spring and set out. They may also be set 
in the fall. The spring planting, however, is likely to be 
more successful than the fall planting. 

The depth to set apple trees will vary according to 
the slope of the land and the quality of the soil. On steep 
hillsides they must be set deeply enough to prevent the 
roots from coming to the surface. In rich soil, four or five 
inches deeper than they were set originally is adequate. 
Sandy light soil will require deeper setting. 

In sections where apple trees grow large, they should 
be set from thirty-five to forty feet apart. In sections 
where trees do not attain so large a size, they may be set 
from twenty-five to thirty feet apart, and trees in one row 
alternate with those in the next. As a protection against 
sun scald, trees should lean a little to the southwest. 

Cultivation. — If the orchard is to be cultivated, some 
crop which requires cultivation in early summer but none 



FRUIT ON THE FARM 



153 



in the fall, may be grown. Corn and early potatoes are 
often planted; and in some eastern states, where there is 
a great demand for tomatoes for the canneries, this crop 
is profitable, and the cultivation beneficial to the orchard. 
Mulching. — There are arguments for and against mulch- 
ing. Where cultivation is impossible, a mulch of straw, 
hay or any coarse material, should be maintained. A mulch 




Figure 67. — A well kept apple orchard. 

of stable manure is beneficial to young trees, but should 
not touch them. 

Where mulching is practiced, it should be renewed when 
grass begins to grow up through it, and should cover as 
large or a larger space than the roots are likely to permeate. 

Each spring the mulching should be removed, the ground 
around the tree well spaded, and a mulch replaced. 

The chief objections to mulching are that it tends to 
encourage growth of roots towards the surface, and fur- 
nishes a home for injurious insects. These objections 
may be oversome by removing the mulch in the spring and 
replacing it in the fall. 

Pruning. — The objects in pruning are to direct the growth 
of the tree, to admit sunlight, and to maintain the vigor 
and vitality of the tree. Trees well exposed to sun and wind 



154 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

will need less pruning or thinning of branches than trees in 
more sheltered places. Old, neglected trees may be bene- 
fited by pruning, as the remaining branches will receive 
more of the sap gathered by the roots as the foliage area is 
reduced. If the trees are badly in need of pruning, it is 
well to remove only a portion of the surplus branches the 
first year, and continue the pruning the following years. 

A limb that crosses another, or is too near another, 
should be removed as well as all diseased portions. 

Pruning may be done on warm days in early spring. 
It is safer not to prune when the twigs are frozen, yet the 
pruning should be done before the sprouts start. A branch 
or twig should be cut off close to the trunk or the branch, 
as such cuts heal more quickly than if a stub is left. The 
scars made should be covered with grafting wax or some 
similar substance. Pure linseed oil and white lead are 
successfully used. 

Spraying. — Apples of the best quality, size and color 
cannot be grown on trees "Ihat are diseased or infested by 
insects. All parts of the apple tree — roots, branches, leaves 
and fruit — are liable to be attacked by pests of many kinds. 
Each kind of insect as, for example, the codling worm, and 
each kind of disease as, for instance, apple scab, may be 
warded off or killed by spraying. Apple pests are referred 
to briefly in Chapter XI. Write to your state experiment 
station for further information. 

Thinning. — As soon in their development as the apples 
begin to show imperfections, or about the time that the 
June fall occurs, approximately half of the crop may be 
removed with profit. Every apple that shows disease or 
injury should be picked, observing to thin the fruit in pro- 
portion throughout the tree. The vigor of the tree is thus 
maintained and its strength is expended on the smaller part 
of the crop that remains. It naturally, therefore, attains 
a greater size and better color. The tree is also likely to 
Ijecome a more regular bearer, and insects and diseases are 
destroyed. 

Picking. — Fruit should l^e jiicked from an orchard step- 
ladder and placed in a cloth-lined basket or a galvanized 
iron pail. Generally speaking, when apples are to be shipped, 



FRUIT ON THE FARM 155 

they should be picked before they are fully ripe. Ripeness 
can be judged by the color of the fruit and the ease with 
which the stem is separated from the tree. In picking the 
stem should be allowed to remain attached to the apple. 

Storage. — Apples keep best when stored in a uniform 
temperature of from 30 to 32 degrees F. The air also should 
be moist, saturated to about 80 per cent. If the temperature 
is too high, the apples will decay, and if the atmosphere is 
dry, they will shrivel. Commercial fruit is generally placed 
in rooms that are cooled artificially. That which is stored 
at home should be kept in frost-proof buildings or dugouts. 
Questions: 

1. How has apple-growing been made possible in districts not 
originally adapted to it? 

2. What kind of soil do apple trees require? 

3. How are different soils or sods prepared for apple trees? 

4. Tell what you can of trees suitable for setting. 

5. How and when should trees be set? 

6. What cultivation is necessary? 

7. What mulching and pruning are necessary? 
Arithmetic: 

1. If trees are set 25 ft. apart each way, how much space does 
each tree occupy? How many trees can be set on an acre? 

2. If trees are set 2.5 ft. apart each way and each tree produces 
4 bus. of apples, how many bushels will be produced per acre? How 
much are they worth at $1.00 per bushel? 

3. If one has 10 apple trees, each producing 4 bus. of apples, 
how much wiU the apples be worth at 90c. per bushel? 

Exercises: 

1. Make a list of all the different kinds of fruit you have eaten 
and tell where each came from. 

2. Who raises the finest strawberries in your neighborhood? 
Visit this place and get the owner to tell you just how to raise straw- 
berries. Then write a story about what you have learned. 

3. Make a list of all the kinds of fruit that are grown in your neigh- 
borhood. How many of these grow wild? 

4. Ask your mother or your teacher to show you how to can fruit. 
Then write a story telling just how to do it. 

5. Ask some fruit grower in the neighborhood to show you how 
to prune an apple tree. 

6. Visit some orchard in the fall and hunt until you fmd a per- 
fect apple. Find out, if you can, why some of the apples are not per- 
fect. Why do some have bad spots and worm holes? What could 
have been done to i)revcnt them? 

7. Of two equally sound apples place one in a cool place and the 
other in a warm place and see how much longer one will remain good 
than the other. 



CHAPTER XI 
PLANT DISEASES AND INSECT PESTS 

PLANT DISEASES 

Prevalence. — Plants are affected by diseases just as 
animals are, and one of the very serious problems of the 
farmer is to learn to know the diseases of the crops he grows, 
and the most practical means of combating them. Many 
volumes have been written about plant diseases, and there 
is much that is still unknown about them. Plant diseases 
are caused by parasitic plants that grow in or on the useful 
farm crops and steal their living from them. Only a few 
of the more common diseases of the principal farm crops 
can be mentioned in a book of this kind. 

Loss. — An immense loss is sustained every year from 
plant diseases. The loss on every farm from this cause is 
very great, much greater, we believe, than most farmers 
realize. Every year there is some loss from disease in 
nearly every crop grown, but as a rule the disease is not 
noticed unless it is quite bad. For example, one can very 
seldom, if ever, find a field of wheat entirely free from rust; 
yet the rust is usually unnoticed until a season occurs which 
is very favorable to it, and a great loss is sustained. Such 
a season occurred in Minnesota in 1914, and wheat rust 
caused a loss of at least 30 per cent in the wheat crop, or a 
money loss of over S15,000,000 in one state in one year. 

Rust affects a great many of the common fai'm crops, 
such as wheat, oats, barley, alfalfa, and rye. As indicated 
above, the loss is often enormous. At present there is no 
known remedy except to select varieties of crops that are 
capable of resisting the disease, and selecting early-maturing 
varieties that are likely to ripen before the rust becomes 
prevalent enough to seriously injure the crop. Winter grain 
crops, because they ripen earlier, are less subject to rust 
than spring-sown crops. 

Grain smuts are diseases that affect barley, oats and 
wheat. The black or naked heads of grain, commonly seen 



PLANT DISEASES AND INSECT PESTS 



157 



I IfS CALi.aVS 



/rUMAJJOfVOC. 



on close examination of a field, are caused by smut. There 
are several different kinds of smut, all of which are quite 
common. All the smuts may be controlled by proper 
treatment. Some of them are easily controlled, while 
others are more difficult to handle. Every farmer or farm 
boy may easily know the different smuts and the best means 
of controlling them. It is very common for smuts to cause 
a loss of 10 per cent in a grain crop. This means a loss of 
from $1 to $2 per acre. This loss may be prevented at a 
cost of only a few cents per acre. 

Loose smut of oats, and covered smut of wheat and 
barley are very easily controlled by treating the seed grain. 

The smut spores, or seeds 
of the smut plant, live 
over winter on the kernels 
of grain. If the kernels 
of grain are brought in 
contact with a solution 
of formalin, the smut 
spores are killed. Forty 
per cent formaldehyde 
may be purchased at any 
drug store, — a pint bot- 

Figure 68 —Material and equipment for treat- tie will COSt frOm thirty 
mg certain kinds of gram smuts. , • , i i 

to Sixty cents, — and when 
mixed with 45 gallons of water will make enough solution 
to treat 60 or 80 bushels of seed grain. There are ma- 
chines on the market for treating seed grain for smut, 
or the grain may be spread on the floor and the 
solution sprinkled over it with a sprinkling can. The grain 
must be shoveled over so that all kernels come in contact 
with the solution. It is well to cover the grain after it is 
treated with sacks or blankets so that the gas from the 
formalin will help in killing the smut spores. We give con- 
siderable space to these smuts, because they attack very 
important crops, are very common, almost universal, and 
are so very easily and simply treated. 

Loose smut of wheat and barley causes the whole heads 
of the plants to fail to produce s(!ed, and instead of the usual 
head of grain there is nothing left but the bare naked stalk. 



158 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



A careful examination of a field of wheat or barley after it 
is well headed out will usually show a considerable number 
of these naked heads. The spores of this smut are found 
on the inside of the kernels of grain, and on this account 
they are hard to destroy. Formalin has no affect on them. 
The only practical treatment is what is called the hot water 
treatment and this is very hard to employ. Another method 
is to get enough clean seed to plant a small plot, and raise 
the seed grain from that. Write to your State Experiment 
Station for full information about smuts. 

Com smut may attack any part 
of the corn plant. It usually ap- 
pears in black, soft masses on the 
ears, stalks or tassels. Each black 
ball is made up of thousands of 
spores. These spores live over win- 
ter in the soil; so seed treatment 
is not effective. The only method 
of control is to pick the smut balls 
from the corn and burn them, or 
rotation of crops, or both. 

Flax wilt is a disease that affects 

flax. It attacks the young plants 

and kills them so they wilt and 

fall over; hence the name. The 

spores of this disease live over winter 

in the soil and on the seed. It is 

'of whe^atTBl^ead ^affected coutrollcd by sowiug flax no oftcncr 

ruacfe^°by°1ooTe"am'u't"'''^ ^^an oucc in six or scvcu _ ycars on 

the same sou, and by usmg clean 

seed. If seed from an infected field must be used, it may 

be treated with formalin the same as oats are treated for 

smut. In treating flax seed, do not get the seeds too wet 

or they will stick together and be difficult to sow. 

Apple blight, or fire blight, is a disease that attacks the 
limbs or trunks of apple trees, also other trees. The leaves 
on the affected parts look as if they had been scorched by 
fire. The disease also shows on the bark, which turns 
darker in color. The only remedy is to cut out the parts 
affected and burn them. 




PLA^'T DISEASES AND INSECT PESTS 



159 



Apple scab is a fungous disease which attacks tlie blossoms 
and other parts of the tree, finallj^ manifesting its effect on 
the fruit, which becomes scabby and shriveled and drops. 
Extensive losses arc suffered in this way. The disease is 
thought to be more prevalent in wet seasons. The remedy 
is to spray with Bordeaux mixture once before blossoming, 




Figure 70. — Spraying fruit trees. 

immediately after the petals fall and again in a few days. 

Formula for Bordeaux Mixture 

Copper sulphate (blue vitriol), 5 lbs. 

Quicklime (not slaked), 5 lbs. 

Water, 50 gallons. 

Dis.solve the copper sulphate in 25 or 35 gallons of water. Slake 
the lime in the remaining part of the water, and mix. To this amoimt 
of Bordeaux mixture J 3 lb. of Paris green may be added to form a 
general insecticide to be used on fruit-bearing bushes and trees. 

Scab and scale diseases may be similarly treated with 
the lime-sulphur solution. To control the codling-moth, 
there should be a midsummer spraying with two j^ounds of 
arsenate of lead to fifty gallons of water. 
Questions: 

1. \\'hat can you say of the nature of plant diseases? 

2. Learn to write down, without looking, the names of the 
diseases discussed in this lesson and the plants they attack. 



160 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

3. Describe the formalin treatment of seed grain, and name the 
diseases that may iSe prevented by it. 
Arithmetic: 

1. If the yield of grain is reduced 10% by smut, how much does 
a farmer lose who grows 100 acres of wheat with a normal yield of 15 
bus. per acre? How many dollars does he lose, if wheat is worth 90c. 
per bushel? 

2. If a farmer pays 50c. for a pint of formaldehyde and uses it 
and four hours of time to treat 60 bus. of wheat for smut, how 
much does it cost him per bushel, if his time is worth 15c. per hour? 

3. How many acres can one seed at the rate of IJ^ bus. per 
acre, with 60 bus. of wheat? 

DISEASES OF POTATO AND COTTON 

Potato diseases are very numerous and cause more loss 
to the crop than is caused to most other crops by disease. 
Although the potato crop is very common, and the diseases 
are very general, comparatively little is widely known or 
done to prevent the losses. 

Potato scab is very common. It attacks the tubers and 
leaves them with rough unsightly blotches. This scab 
greatly reduces the value of the crop, though it does not, as 
a rule, materially reduce the yield. The spores of the 
disease live over both on the tubers and in the soil. The 
spores on the tubers are destroyed by soaking the tubers 
for one and a half hours in a solution of formalin made by 
mixing one pint of 40 per cent formaldehyde in 35 gal- 
lons of water. The seed tubers should be treated before 
they are cut, then planted on clean land, that is, land that 
has not produced potatoes for four or five years. Four 
ounces of corrosive sublimate dissolved in hot water, then 
mixed with thirty gallons of water, is also effective in de- 
stroying scab. The tubers are soaked in it 1^ hours. 
Corrosive sublimate is very poisonous and must be handled 
with care. 

Rhizoctonia is another serious potato disease, which in 
many sections seriously affects the crop. It affects the 
vines, the stems and the tubers. It is controlled by treat- 
ing the seed with corrosive sublimate, as indicated above 
for scab, and by planting clean seed on clean land. 

Potato wilt, or lirown rot, is one of the very injurious 
potato diseases, though it has never been recognized as a 
disease by a great many potato growers. It affects both 



PLANT DISEASES AND INSECT PESTS 161 

the vines and roots, and often causes serious loss in the 
tubers by causing them to rot. A thin sHce cut across the 
stem end of tubers affected usually shows a dark ring or 
diseased portion just under the skin. This disease causes 
a great loss in yield and from tubers rotting. It may be 
entirely controlled by selecting clean seed and by rotation 
of crops. Clip off the stem ends of tubers to be used for 
seed, and discard all that show the disease, or at least cut 
off all the diseased part. Select for seed only disease-free 
tubers, and then treat with corrosive sublimate solution the 
same as for scab. Plant only clean seed on clean land. 

Potato blight causes serious losses in the potato crop 
nearly every year. There are two distinct blights that 
affect potatoes. They are called early and late blight. 
Both diseases affect the leaves of the growing plants, and 
reduce the crop of tubers by partially or completely destroy- 
ing the leaves. Late blight also causes the tubers to rot; 
so it is more serious than early blight. Both of these blights 
are controlled by spraying the vines with Bordeaux mix- 
ture. See page 149. The potato vines must be sprayed 
from three to five times. Begin spraying when the plants 
are six to eight inches high, and repeat every ten to fifteen 
days until the potatoes are ripe. 

Cotton Diseases. — There are two serious common diseases 
of the cotton plant : wilt and root rot. Cotton wilt is some- 
what similar to flax wilt. Some plants and some varieties 
of cotton seem to resist the disease better than others. 
The selection of resistant varieties and the rotation of crops 
are the most effective means of control. Root rot affects 
cotton quite seriously on heavy soils. Deep plowing, drain- 
age and rotation of crops help to control this disease. 

Questions: 

1. Name some important diseases that affect potatoes. 

2. How are the potato blights controlled? 

3. Describe the making of Bordeaux mixture? 

4. Name two diseases of cotton and remedies for them. 
Arithmetic: 

1. If an acre of potatoes yields 160 bus., how much is the loss 
per acre, if the value of each bushel is reduced 5c. on account of scab? 

2. If a normal yield of potatoes is 160 bus. and the yield is re- 
duced 2.5% on account of wilt, what is the loss per acre, if potatoes are 
worth 4Qc. per bushel? 

6 — 



162 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

3. If five hours of time are required to select and treat enough 
seed potatoes for an acre, and 30c. worth of material is required for 
the treatment, what will the total cost of treatment be, if one's time 
is worth 15c. per hour? 

INSECTS AND THEIR CONTROL 

Loss to farm crops caused by insects represents a very 
heavy tax, and increases greatly the cost of producing crops. 
Many injurious insects, in fact most of them, are always 
present, and there seems to be little prospect of ever getting 
rid of them. The problem of the farmer is to know the 
habits and methods of control of the insects affecting his 
crops, and to wage continuous war against them. 

Habits. — Insects have certain characteristics that dis- 
tinguish them from other animals. There are three distinct 
sections to their bodies: head, trunk and abdomen. They 
also change in character as they develop. There are four 
quite distinct changes: first, the egg stage; second, the 
larval or worm stage, — this is the stage at which they do 
most of the damage to crops; third, the pupal or resting 
stage, during which time the insect changes to the fourth 
stage, that of the mature insect. 

Two Classes. — Insects may be divided into two classes 
by their methods of eating. Some insects chew their food. 
These insects can be poisoned by spraying poison on the 
plants they are eating. Other insects force their sharp 
mouth parts into the skin or bark of the plant and suck out 
the juices. Poison sprayed on plants will not affect these 
insects, because they do not get it. They must be killed 
by spraying with something that will kill them simply by 
coming in contact with their bodies, such as soap solution 
or tobacco extracts. Among the most common biting insects 
that can be poisoned are potato bugs, cutworms, army worms, 
currant worms, cabbage worms, grasshoppers, plum curculio, 
and codling moth. The most common sucking insects are 
plant lice, squash bugs, chinch bugs, and scale insects. 

Remedies. — There are several ways of combating in- 
sects, the most generally effective way being good farming; 
that is, the rotation of crops, fall plowing, clean fence 
corners, keeping all rubbish picked up about the fields, 
and maintaining about the place a good grove or other 



PLANT DISEASES AND INSECT PESTS 163 

suitable place for birds. Rotation aids in reducing the loss 
from insects, because it provides for moving each crop to 
a different field every year or two, and by the time the 
insects get a start in one field the crop they are attacking is 
moved to another field and largely escapes. Fall plowing 
destroys many insects by destroying their winter quarters, 
or by exposing the eggs or insects so that the weather kills 
them. Cleaning up fence corners and rubbish destroys 
good hiding places and winter quarters for many insects. 
Birds eat great quantities of insects, and anything done to 
protect or shelter them aids in controlling insects. 

Poisons for the biting insects are either sprayed or dusted 
on the plants. The liquid spray is most common and gen- 
erally most satisfactory. Paris green mixed in water in 
the proportion of one pound of Paris green to fifty gallons 
of water is one of the most common poisons. Arsenate of 
lead mixed, three pounds to fifty gallons of water, is also 
generally used. Bordeaux mixture, which is used as a spray 
to destroy some of the plant diseases, see page 149, may be 
used with either of these poisons in place of water. So one 
may often spray for insects, like potato bugs, and plant 
diseases, like potato blight, at one operation. 

Contact sprays for sucking insects may be made at 
home or purchased. A very simple and satisfactory spray 
for plant lice is soap solution, made by dissolving one pound 
of laundry soap in fifteen gallons of boiling water. This 
solution may be used any time, but is more effective when 
warm. Tobacco extracts are sold commercially by druggists 
in serveral different forms. From half a pint to a pint is 
used in fifty gallons of water. 

The cotton boll weevil has done great damage to the 
cotton crop. When this insect first appeared it was feared 
it would completely destroy the cotton industry; but it 
has become less destructive since cotton growers have 
learned how to control it. Rotation of crops, thorough 
cultivation of the cotton crop, and early planting of early 
varieties have been found quite effective in controlling it. 
Questions: 

1 . Can you tell some of the characteristics of insects? What are 
the four stages or changes that insects go through? 



164 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

2. Why is a farmer interested in knowing whether an insect 
gets its food by biting or sucking? 

3. What can you say of the cotton boll weevil? 
Arithmetic: 

1. If corn on fall-plowed land yields 50 bus. per acre and on 
spring plowed land 25% less on account of the damage done by cut- 
worms, how much is gained per acre by fall-plowing, if corn is worth 
50c. per bushel? 

2. A sprayed his cabbage with Paris green to kill cabbage worms, 
and raised 15 tons of cabbage per acre; B did not spray his cabbage 
and raised only 12 tons per acre. How much did A make by spray- 
ing, if cabbage is worth 3^c. per pound? 

Exercises: 

1. Gather some specimens of wheat, oats, and corn that are 
afflicted with smut. What has the disease done to the grain? 

2. If you can find a crop that is afflicted with smut, estimate 
the loss. Show how it might have been prevented and at what expense. 

3. Make a comparative study of apple blight and potato blight 
and apple scab and potato scab. How are they aUke and how unlike? 

4. Make a collection of a few insects in their various stages of 
development. 

5. Get specimens of insects that eat and that suck and parts 
of plants attacked. Also spray against each kind and note results. 

6. Try to estimate the loss that insects may cause to crops either 
on your own farm or in the community. 



CHAPTER XII 
LIVE STOCK 

Importance. — Farmers in the United States own almost 
six billion dollars' worth of live stock, principally as follows: 
20,737,000 head of dairy cattle, worth $1,118,487,000; 
35,855,000 head of beef cattle worth $1,116,333,000; 20,- 
962,000 head of horses worth $2,291,638,000; 58,935,000 
head of hogs worth $612,951,000; 49,719,000 head of sheep 
worth $200,803,000; and $202,506,372 worth of poultry. 

With these vast sums invested in live stock it is very 
important that the boys and girls who are to handle this 
vast wealth should know something about animals, their 
habits and needs. In 1909 the total value of live stock 
sold and slaughtered and of live stock products sold from 
the farmers of the United States was nearly three billion 
dollars. 

Live Stock and the Soil. — Aside from the vast invest- 
ment in live stock and the annual value of live stock pro- 
ducts is the great importance of live stock to the farm and 
to the productivity of the soil. It is a generally recog- 
nized fact that farms on which a considerable number of 
live stock is kept produce larger yields of crops than farms 
without live stock. This result is true, because, when 
animals eat a crop of grass or hay or corn, a large part 
of the plant food contained in the crop is returned to the 
farm; while on farms without live stock the whole crop is 
sold from the farm and all the plant food it contained, 
with it. It is well worth while for anyone who expects to 
operate a farm to study very carcfull}^ the relation of live 
stock to the farm. 

Classes of Stock. — There are several different ways of 
classifying live stock. First, they may be classified accord- 
ing to the character of the animals, as. Cattle, Horses, Mules, 
Sheep, Swine, and Poultry. Second, they may be classi- 
fied on the basis of the uses to which thej' are put, thus: 



166 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

Horses and Mules are used chiefly for power or for driv- 
ing and riding. In some countries in times of famine horse 
meat is eaten, but such cases are rare. Horse hides or skins 
are used to make gloves and shoes. 

Cattle are kept chiefly for meat and milk. Oxen are 
sometimes used for work and driving. When animals are 
slaughtered, their skins are used for making shoes, gloves, 
harnesses and other leather goods. Their hair is used for 
plastering. The bones are used for refining sugar, and the 
bones, blood, hair and other waste is used for fertilizer or 
for feed for hogs and poultry, and the tallow is used in 
oleomargarine, for making soap and various kinds of oils 
and grease. 

Hogs are kept for the production of meat and lard, but 
the waste products are used for fertilizers. 

Sheep are kept for their wool from which clothing is 
made and for meat. 

Poultry is kept for meat and eggs. 

Questions: 

1. Tell what you can about the importance of live stock in the 
United States. In your community. 

2. Why do live stock farms usually produce larger yields of gi-ain 
and corn than farms without live stock? 

3. What can you say of the uses of the different kinds of live 
stock? 

Arithmetic: 

1. Figiu-e as nearly as you can the value of all of the live stock 
on your home farm, or on some other farm where you know conditions. 

2. Ten bushels of corn contains 10 lbs. of nitrogen 1.7 lbs. of 
phosphorus, and 1.9 lbs. of potash. If 10 bushels of corn will produce 
100 lbs. of pork which contams 1.8 lbs. of nitrogen, .3 lb. of phosphorus 
and .1 lb. of pota.sh, what is the value of the fertility saved by feeding 
the 10 bushels of corn and selling the 100 lbs. of pork? If nitrogen is 
worth 18 cents per lb. and phosphorus and potassium are worth 6 
cents per lb. 

CARE AND MANAGEMENT 
GENERAL 

Chores. — Farm boys are, as a rule, occupied a con- 
siderable portion of the time, mornings and evenings, car- 
ing for the stock. As the profits derived from the five stock 
depend to a great extent on the care they receive, it is 
worth while to spend a little time considering how the "chores" 
may be done more quickly, more easily and better. 



LIVE STOCK 



167 



The amount of live stock kept on the average farm 
must increase as more intensive systems of farming be- 
come necessary. The proper care and management of live 
stock is a matter of increasing importance. 

System. — System in doing the chores is fully as effec- 
tive as system in studying. A carefully thought out plan 
that will enable one to get a certain amount of work done 
with the fewest steps and least possible delay will often change 



TTTffi 



ri/i^ <-^~* 



anl 





^•fvy/'itvrr rfi/?t/ ffMjpM 



Figure 71. 






-A well arranged barn in which the "chores" may be done in a mini- 
mum amount of time. 



a tedious and unpleasant chore time into pleasant pastime. 
To lead four or six horses to water, and then clean the stable 
with them in their stalls, requires much more time than is 
necessary, if yards and watering trough are so arranged that 
the horses can be turned out to drink by themselves, and 
the stable cleaned while they are out. If horses are turned 
out to drink before they are fed their grain, as they should 
be, they will, as a rule, return to the barn promptly. If 
you are not caring for your horses in this manner, do so 
and notice the saving of time; or if you are doing so, notice 
the time it takes to care for your horses, and compare 
notes with some neighbor who is still leading his horses out 
to water. 

Value of Time. — INIany men who work in factories and 
at other occupations are paid by the hour on the basis 



168 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



of the amount of work they can do, and every minute 
of their time must be made to count. Such rules are not 
possible on a farm, but a young man who expects to farm 
can and should make himself just as proficient as possible, 
not with the idea of learning to do twice as much in a day 
as an ordinary man can do, but to so direct his efforts and 
utihze his time as to be able to do a good day's work as easily 




Figure 72. — Hereford calves out for exercise in a protected yard. Stock should 
be left out in winter only so long aa comfortable. 

and in as short a time as is consistent with good work. 

Some men have a system of harnessing and hitching 
a team, and can do these things better and in much less 
time than the man who has no system and, consequently, 
does them in a different way each time. 

Milking ten or twelve cows twice each day is a com- 
paratively easy task for a man who can milk them in an 
hour, while to milk the same cows would be almost drudgery 
to the man who can milk but five or six in an hour. Men 
can make themselves very proficient and learn to do things 



LIVE STOCK 169 

rapidly and well by application and practice, as is illustrated 
in corn husking. Twenty-five bushels of corn is a fair 
day's husking for a beginner, but many men by practice 
can husk from sixty to over one hundred bushels in a da3^ 

Make Animals Comfortable. — One of the first essentials 
in caring for animals is to make them comfortable. Hogs 
cannot fatten, hens cannot lay, cows cannot give a good 
flow of milk and horses cannot continue to do a good full 
day's work, unless they are made comfortable. Every 
time an animal is made uncomfortable, either by being 
left hungry, thirsty or cold, by lying on a hard bed or by 
being dogged or pounded, the owner losses money by getting 
less returns from the animal. 

Exercise. — Exercise is of the same value to animals as 
to men. It gives firmness and strength of muscle, pro- 
motes good circulation and improves the tone of the vital 
organs.' These conditions all tend to increase the vigor and 
productivity of live stock. 

Outside Feeding.— For those animals that are fed in 
winter outside the stable proper feed boxes, forage racks and 
water troughs should be constructed. The first two should 
be situated so that feed can be hauled close to them, and 
around all gravel should be spread or a plank platform 
made. Water ought not to be allowed to freeze. If tanks 
are used, they may be surrounded with a framework and 
covered with lids. The space between the frame and the 
tank may be filled in with sawdust or manure. Care in 
these particulars is well worth while. 
Questions: 

1. Why should we plan to save time? 

2. What is the most important thing in caring for animals? 

3. What is the value of exercise to live stock? 

4. Describe outside arrangements for feeding. 
Arithmetic: 

1. A man by having a handy barn may save 20 minutes per day 
in doing chores. How many hours may he save in a year? How much 
is this time worth at 18c. per hour? 

2. It requires A 60 minutes to milk 5 cows. If by application 
and practice he learns to milk 5 cows in 40 minutes, how much time is 
saved in a week? In a year? 

3. From the above, at 20c. an hour what is the time saved in one 
year worth? How much in 5 years? 



170 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



SHELTER 

Shelter. — To make live stock comfortable in the north- 
ern part of the United States and Canada, good shelter must 
be provided. Expensive shelter is not necessary, but build- 
ings should be so constructed as to keep the animals warm. 
If they are not kept warm by shelter, some of the food they 
eat will be used to warm them, and it is cheaper to provide 
good shelter. Besides, if animals are not comfortable, they 
cannot do well. This is especially true of milch cows and 
young stock. Steers do not require very warm quarters so 
long as they are protected from the storms and the wind. 
Light. — Plenty of windows should be provided, so that 

the sunlight can reach 
just as much of the inter- 
ior of the building as pos- 
sible. Sunlight is a deadly 
enemy of bacteria and 
disease germs. There is 
no better disinfectant than 
sunlight, and it is so cheap 
that every building should 
be amply supplied. Tub- 
erculosis is very common 
among domestic animals, 
and it is generally believed 
that it may be transmitted 
from animals to man, 
especially in milk. So 
it is not alone for the com- 
fort of the animals and 
the profit we derive, that 
we provide healthful quar- 
ters, but to guard the 
health of the family as 
well. 
Ventilation. — By good ventilation we mean such a system 
as will remove the foul air from the stable. Leaving a door 
or a window open is not good ventilation, as it causes a 
draught and lets out the warm air. A better way is to have 
one or more flues built in the barn, that will carry the foul 




Figure 73. — A good system of ventilation 
for a barn. Fresh air comes in near the 
ceiling. Foul air is taken out from near 
the floor. After King. 



LITE STOCK 171 

air out. Warm air is lighter than cold air, hence it rises. 
A stable is warmer near the ceiling, if the ceiling is tight, 
than near the jfloor. Hence the ventilator flue should 
open near the floor so as not to take out the warm air. The 
carbon dioxide exhaled by animals is heavier than air, hence 
it settles to the floor and will be taken out by such a venti- 
lator. Air should be let into the stable near the ceiling, 
whence it will gradually settle and become partially warmed 
before it reaches the animals. The illustration in Figure 73 
shows how a ventilator should work. Notice the barns in 
the neighborhood and make a note of the number of windows 
and ventilators. How is your barn lighted and ventilated? 

Conveniences. — Since chores are so frequent, just a few 
minutes lost each time they are done amounts to many 
hours in a year, probably several days; hence it is well to 
plan to have the barns handy. Feed, both hay and grain, 
should be stored close to the feeding alleys, which should 
be sufficiently large. Cleaning the stables is probably the 
heaviest part of the chores, and should be made as easy 
as possible. If stalls are so arranged that a team can be 
driven through the barn and the manure loaded in a spreader, 
wagon or sled, and hauled directly to the field, it will be 
much easier than where it is necessary to throw it to one 
end or side of the barn, then throw it out of a door or a 
window and pitch it into a wagon outside. This last method 
is common on many farms, and results in a great loss of 
labor and time, besides a loss in the value of the manure. The 
sooner manure can be put on the field after it is taken from 
the stable the better. A manure pile lying under the eaves 
of a barn for a few months may lose one half of its value. 
If a new barn is being built, or the old one changed, a great 
deal of thought and study should be put on it to make it 
as convenient as possible. A day spent in planning the 
alleys, stalls, etc., may save many days' work each year. 

Cost. — A feature that must not be overlooked is the 
cost of a barn. A barn is built to shelter stock, and stock 
is kept for profit. When a barn is built, it must earn for 
the farmer enough each year to pay interest on the invest- 
ment, cost of insurance, taxes, repairs and yearly deprecia- 
tion. If a barn costs $1,000 and lasts 25 years, the yearly 



172 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

depreciation is $40. Good barns are desirable; but some- 
times barns are built on farms where live stock is so poorly 
managed that it fails to bring in even the yearly cost of 
the building; and in such cases the investment results in 
a loss. Care should be taken that the yearly cost of shelter 
is not so high as to take all profit from the animals kept. 
By careful attention to the conditions given above, one 
will get an idea of how to solve such problems. 
Questions: 

1. Why should buildings be warm? Why light? Why well 
ventilated? 

2. Why should buildings be made convenient? 

3. Is there any danger of investing too much money in farm 
buildings? 

Arithmetic: 

1. (a) How much is the interest charge per year on $1,000 at 
4 per cent? 

(b) How much is the yearly cost of insurance on the barn at 
50c. per $100? 

(c) Such a barn will cost about $10 per year for repairs. What is 
the total yearly cost of the barn? 

(Note: It is the sum of the yearly depreciation, interest, insur- 
ance and repair charges.) 

2. If such a barn will shelter 20 head of stock, what will be the 
yearly cost per head for shelter? 

3. In a similar manner figure the yearly cost per head for shelter 
in a $4,000 barn that will shelter 40 head of stock. (Note: Find de- 
preciation, interest, insurance and repairs at same rate as in example 
No. 1.) 

Exercises: 

1. Make a complete list of all live stock on the home farm, 
showing approximate value of all stock and of each kind, also numbers 
and value of any pure-bred animals. 

2. Make a list of the different uses for which each class of stock 
is kept. 

3. Visit one or more of the best stock farms in the community 
and make a report in writing as to what was observed. Some of the 
more important things to note and describe are kind or kinds of stock 
kept, breed or breeds, uses for which they are kept, kind of pastures 
provided, kind of buildings, whether or not a silo is used, kinds of feed 
raised for both summer and winter Use. how the products are marketed, 
and whether or not the boys and girls of the farm are interested. 



CHAPTER XIII 
FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Source. — We have learned that the carbon dioxide 
exhaled by animals is used by growing plants; that this 
carbon dioxide in the air unites with water and other ele- 
ments taken by the roots of the plants from the soil, and 
forms starch and other compounds of which plants are com- 
posed. The heat or energy given off by the sun is used to 
build up these compounds in the plant. Animals are de- 
pendent, then, upon plants for all their feed. 

Requirement. — The act of living involves energy and 
the necessary consumption of nourishment, as a fuel, to 
supply the vital force. As the heart works to send supplies 
to the various parts of the body, it must itself undergo a 
constant repair, and hence it has its own blood vessels. 
To think and to walk are at the expense of energy created 
by the consumi^tion of parts of the body. To run requires 
more energy and, therefore, causes more waste than to 
walk. So, then, the harder animals work the more nourish- 
ment, or feed, thoy must have. 

How Made Available. — When plants, such as grass, hay 
or grain, are eaten by animals and digested, the compounds 
they contain are broken down and used by the animal body, 
and the energy required to build up the compounds in the 
plants furnishes energy to the animal. 

Selection. — By chemical analysis men have been able 
to determine the exact constituent elements of plants, that 
is, how much hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, phos- 
phorus, etc., has entered into their composition. They 
know, also, the proportion of these elements that is found 
in animal bodies. With these facts before us, therefore, 
it is easy to select the proper feeds for each kind of animal 
according to its composition and peculiar physical adapt- 
ability to get the most benefit from this or that kind of 
feed. Different kinds of animals, and animals doing dif- 
ferent classes and amounts of work, require different kinds 



174 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

and amounts of feed. So the intelligent feeding of animals 
requires a knowledge of the composition of different feeds 
and of the requirements of the various classes of animals 
doing different kinds and amounts of work. 

Kinds. — Feeds are of two general classes, roughage and 
concentrates. Roughage includes all bulky feeds as hay, 
fodder, straw and silage. Concentrates include all the grains 
and mill feeds, such as oats, bran, corn and oil meal. 

Composition. — Feeds are generally divided, according 
to the elements they contain, into the following classes: 

Protein is a term applied to a group of compounds con- 
taining nitrogen. Protein is used by animals to make 
muscle or lean flesh, bone, hair or wool, tendons, nerves, 
casein and albumin in milk, etc. No other compound can 
take the place of protein; consequently it is very important 
that enough be fed, or the animal cannot keep up in flesh 
and production or work. If too much protein is fed, it 
can replace the other elements; but as these feeds are usually 
expensive, it is not wise to feed more than is needed. 

Feeds containing a large proportion of protein, as bran, 
oil meal, clover, etc., are called nitrogenous feeds. 

Carbohydrates are those substances in feed that are com- 
posed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but have no nitro- 
gen. Sugar, starch, fibre, etc., are carbohydrates. They 
are used in the body to produce fat, or are burned in the 
body to produce heat or energy. They cannot be used in 
place of protein. 

Fat. — The oils, wax and fats contained in feeds are 
called fat. It is used in the animal body for the same pur- 
pose as carbohydrates. One pound of fat is worth as much 
as 2.2 pounds of carbohydrates. 

Feeds containing a large proportion of carbohydrates 
and fat, as timothy or wild hay, corn, barley, etc., are called 
non-nitrogenous feeds. 

Ash. — Plants contain some mineral matter, a small 
amount of which is necessary in animal bodies, as iron in 
the blood and calcium in the bones. 

All the common feeds contain protein, carbohydrates, 
fat and ash, and hence might be classed in different groups. 
Those containing a proportionatelyjarge amount of protein 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



175 



are called nitrogenous, and those containing proportionately 
large amounts of carbohydrates and fat, non-nitrogenous. 
Sometimes feeds are classed as grains or concentrates and 
roughage. The following table shows the composition or 
digestible nutrients of common feeds: 

Digestible Nutrients in One Pound of Feed 

(1) Nitrogenous Grain Feeds. Carbohy- 

Protein drates Fat 

Oats 107 .50 .038 

Shorts 13 .46 .045 

Bran 119 .42 .025 

Oil meal 302 .32 .069 

(2) Non-Nitrogenous Grain Feeds. Carbohy- 

Protein drates Fat 

Com 079 .67 .043 

Barley 084 .65 .016 

Emmer (Speltz) 10 .70 .021 

Rye 095 .694 .012 

(3) Nitrogenous Roughage. Carbohy- 

Protein drates Fat 

Alfalfa 117 .41 .012 

Red Clover 071 .38 .018 

Mangels 010 .05 .002 

(4) Non-Nitrogenous Roughage. Carbohy- 

Protein drates Fat 

Com Silage 012 .14 .007 

Corn Stover 014 .31 .007 

Corn Fodder 037 .41 .015 

Slough Hay 026 .42 .011 

Timothv Hay 028 .43 .014 

Prairie Hay 030 .42 .014 

Oat Straw 013 .39 .008 

Balanced Ration. — Very few plants contain, in the 
right proportion, the elements required by animals; so a 
combination of two or more kinds of feed is found necessary 
to supply the animal with needed feed. When one gives 
just the right kinds and amounts of feed to supply the 
needs of the animal, he is feeding a balanced ration. Such 
a ration is most satisfactory and economical, because it 
supplies all the elements needed, with no surplus of any 
one. All animals require feed that contains in the proper 
proportion, protein, carbohydrates, fat and ash. 

Balanced rations will be given for each class of animals 
as it is discussed. 



176 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

Feeds Compared. — In comparing the grain feeds or 
concentrates with the roughage, one will see that a pound 
of grain usually contains more nutrients than a pound of 
roughage. As a rule there is much unsalable roughage on 
the farm, while grain is salable; hence there is a tendency to 
feed more roughage and less grain. A reasonable amount 
of roughage is desirable, but an animal that is working can- 
not eat and digest enough of it to supply its needs. It 
should have some grain. To feed only grain is not de- 
sirable, as it is expensive and does not supply enough bulk. 
A proper balance must be maintained. 
Questions: 

1. What is a "balanced ration"? 

2. What is protein, and for what is it used in the animal body? 

3. What are carbohydrates, and for what are they used in the 
animal body? 

4. What substances are known as fat, and for what are they 
used in the animal body? 

5. What classes of feeds are called nitrogenous feeds? What 
classes are non-nitrogenous? 

6. Why do animals need food? 
Arithmetic: 

1. Bran, oil meal, and clover are feeds rich in protein. How 
much is each worth per pound when oil meal is worth $35.00 per ton, 
bran $24.00 per ton, and clover hay $5.00 per ton? 

2. Corn, barley and timothy hay are feeds rich in carbohydrates. 
How much is each worth per pound when corn is worth 54c. per bushel 
(56 lbs.), barley 56c. per bu.shel (48 lbs.), and timothy hay $5.00 per ton? 

3. There is 7.1% of protein in clover hay. How many pounds of 
protein in one ton? How much does the protein cost per pound, if 
clover hay is worth $5.00 per ton? 

Exercises: 

1. Report in writing the number of acres of pasture provided on 
.some farm for each head of horses, colts, cows, young cattle, hogs, 
sheep. 

2. Find out how many pounds of hay, corn, fodder, silage and 
grain feed is required for one animal during the winter season, also for 
one day for each of the kinds of animals mentioned above. 

3. Report the number of farms in the community that raise 
alfalfa hay for feed and that have silos and use silage. 



CHAPTER XIV 

HORSES 

TYPES AND BREEDS 

Breeds.— There are many different breeds of horses, 

just as there are many breeds of cattle. People in different 

countries or communities have wanted horses for diherent 

purposes and have kept them under different conditions 




Figure 74. — A Percheron stallion, a draft type. 

until they have developed distinct breeds. We are told 
that our many different breeds of horses have all been 



178 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

developed from the prehistoric horse, skeletons of which 
have been found in different parts of the world. 

T3rpes of Horses. — There are four general types of horses, 
ponies, light horses, coach horses, and draft horses. In 



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Figure 75. — A Clydesdale stallion, a draft type. 

each class there are a number of breeds. By far the most 
important type is the draft horse. 

Draft horses are heavy, slow-moving animals, used to 
do most of the heavy work in the world, such as plowing, 
grading and hauhng. The draft horse has a broad back, 
broad chest, deep body, relatively short legs, big feet and 
has great strength, but cannot travel fast. Draft horses 
are expected to weigh from 1,500 pounds to over 2,000 
pounds. Percheron horses originated in France, but are 



HORSES 



179 



the most common and most popular draft breed in this 
country. They are black or gray in color and normally 
weigh from 1,800 to 2,300 pounds. French draft horses 
are quite similar to Percheron. Clydesdale horses origin- 
ated in Scotland, but are very common in this country. 
They are about the same weight as the Percherons. They 
are usually light bay in color and have one or more white 
feet and a white stripe or star in the face. They have long 




Figure 76. — A Belgian stallion, a draft type. 

and shaggy hair on their legs. They may be brown, black, 
gray or chestnut. Shire horses originated in England. 
They are about the same in size as the Clydesdale and Perch- 
eron, possibly a little heavier and coarser. They are colored 
hke the Clydesdale and have long hair on their legs, but 
they are more like the Percheron in form. They are not so 
common in this country as the Percherons and Clydesdales. 



180 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

Belgian horses originated in Belgium. They are probably 
a httle lighter in weight than the other draft breeds men- 
tioned, and are a little more blocky in form, and have 
shorter legs. They may be bay, brown or roan in color. 
They have no long hair on their legs. This breed is not 
common in America. The Suffolk is another English 
breed not common in America, but well worthy of con- 
sideration. They are not quite so heavy as Percherons, 
are chestnut in color, and have no long hair on theii' legs. 




Fisure 77. — A good type of light driving horse. 

Light horses, as indicated by the name, are light in 
weight, weighing from 800 lbs. to 1,200 lbs., or sometimes 
as much as 1,300 lbs. They are used for driving, riding 
and racing. These horses are distinguishable by their light 
bodies, longer, finer legs, and more graceful, easier action 
than is seen in the draft horses. Several more or less dis- 
tinct breeds are found in this class. The Thoroughbred was 
developed in England and is used for running and hunting. 
The Arabian is a beautiful horse originated in Arabia, and 
used for riding. The Orloff Trotter originated in Russia 
and is used for driving and racing. There are also three 
American breeds in this class, American Saddler, Standard- 
bred and Morgan, used for driving and racing. 



HORSES 181 

Coach horses include several breeds of horses used for 
hauling heavy carriages or coaches and, sometimes, for 
light hauling. They are lighter and have much better 
action than draft horses and are heavier and slower than 
the breeds mentioned under light horses. The breeds 
in this class range in weight from 1,000 lbs. to 1,500 lbs. 
Hackneys and Cleveland Bays are English breeds. Hack- 
neys are used extensively as fancy carriage horses. Cleve- 
land Bays are used for heavy coaches and for light hauling. 
French Coach horses, originated in France, and German 
Coach horses, developed in Germany, are other important 
breeds coming under this class. 

Ponies include several breeds of small horses used for 
driving and riding, chiefly by children. This class includes 
Shetland ponies, Indian and Mexican ponies, etc. 
Questions: 

1. What is the most common breed of horses in yom* community? 

2. Describe fully the breed of horses you like best. 

3. Name and describe all the common breeds of draft horses. 
Arithmetic: 

1. A is plowing with two horses, weighing 1,000 lbs. each. B is 
plowing with five horses, weighing 1,500 lbs. each. What is the weight 
of each man's team? 

2. If a man with two 1,000-lb. horses can plow 4 inches deep with 
one 14-inch plow, how deep can B, in Example 1, plow with two 14-inch 
plows (a gang plow), assuming that the depth B can plow will be in 
proportion to the weight of his team. 

3. If A and B (see example 1) each feeds his team at the rate 
of 1 J^ lbs. of oats per day, per 100 lbs. live weight, how much would 
each have to pay for oats at 40c per bushel? 

CARE AND MANAGEMENT 

In the Stable. — While in the stable the horse should have 
plenty of good bedding to keep him comfortable and clean 
whenever he wishes to lie down. Good ventilation is 
very necessary, also, as he requires about one cubic foot of 
fresh air every hour for each pound of his weight. The 
feed box should be broad and flat-bottomed, and kept clean. 
He should be well tied so as to permit his head to rest on the 
floor and yet the strap should not be so long that he can 
put his foot over it. 

Grooming. — Horses should be thoroughly curried and 
brushed every day for the sake of both health and appear- 



182 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

ance. Washing may be desirable at times, but is likely to 
spoil the lustre of the hair and may cause chill unless prompt- 
ly dried. The best time to groom the horses is in the even- 
ing after the work is done. 

Shoeing. — Horses at work need to be shod to prevent 
the hoof from wearing away and becoming sore and, in 
winter, to prevent their slipping. Careful attention to 
shoeing adds much to the comfort and safety of a horse as 
well as to the convenience of the owner. 

The cost of horse labor has been determined by the 
Minnesota Experiment Station, in co-operation with the 
U. S. Department of Agriculture, by keeping accurate 
records on twenty-four Minnesota farms for six years. 
These records show that the total cost of keeping a farm 
work-horse for a year averages about $84.00, and that the 
average number of hours of work done by each horse is about 
1,000 per year, making the cost per hour of work 8.4 cents. 

To one who has given the matter Httle thought, the 
above figures seem high, but, when one considers that the 
cost of a horse for a year includes several items, it becomes 
plain that the figures are not far wrong. The following 
items are the important ones in the cost of keeping a horse: 
feed, labor for caring for him, depreciation, interest on in- 
vestment, shelter, shoeing, and depreciation and repair of 
harnesses. While it is not easy to figure all these items 
without having kept accurate records for a considerable 
time, yet a fairly accurate estimate may be made by noting 
about the amount of hay and grain fed per day in winter 
and in summer, and its value, the amount of time spent each 
day in caring for the horses, the value of the horses and on 
this value figuring the interest and depreciation, and then 
adding to these items a fairly liberal estimate of the cost 
of shelter, harnesses and shoeing. The total amount will 
no doubt be a surprise. 

The cost of horse labor on the farm may be reduced 
by raising more horses on the farm, by keeping fewer work 
horses, by economical feeding and by better planning of 
the work. 

Raising More Horses. — By raising more horses on the 
farm, most of the farm work may be done with mares that 



HORSES 183 

raise colts, and with young horses before they are old enough 
to sell to advantage. In this way the horses will be doing 
double duty. The item of depreciation will be largely elim- 
inated; also a part of the cost of feed, because at least a por- 
tion of the feed fed to the mares will be paid for out of the 
value of the colts. 

Fewer horses can often be kept, with Httle inconven- 
ience in doing the farm work. When one realizes that it 
costs $70 to $90 per year to keep a horse, he may find that 
often an extra horse may be hired for a few days, during 
seeding or harvest, cheaper than to keep one a whole year 
when it is really needed but a very short time. 

Distribution of Horse Labor. — One can often greatly 
reduce the demand for horse labor at special seasons, and 
distribute it over a longer season, by following a diversified 
system of farming. If a part of the farm is seeded to grass, 
there is less plowing and seedmg to be done. If corn is raised 
on a part of the land, instead of seeding it all to grain, the 
seeding and harvesting periods are made longer; so the 
same land can be handled with less horse labor. 

Have Plenty of Horses. — It is important, however, to 
have plenty of good, strong horses with which to do the 
farm work, because with good horses one can do more 
work in a day than with poor ones and thus save man 
labor, which is also costly. It is easier to keep good hired 
men, if one has good horses. The good farm manager will 
consider the question from both sides and act accordingly, 
but he cannot act wisely unless he knows all the facts. 
Questions: 

1. Name some of the items that must be considered in determin- 
ing the cost of keeping a farm work horse. 

2. Give four ways by which the cost of horse labor may be reduced 
on the farm. 

3. Give at least two reasons why plenty of good horses should 
be kept on the farm. 

4. Why should horses be well bedded? Groomed? Shod? 
Arithmetic: 

1. If a horse is fed 2 qts. of oats three times a day half the year 
and 4 qts., three times per day for the remainder of the year, how many 
bushels of oats will he be fed in a year? How much are they worth at 
35c. per bushel? 

2. If a horse is fed 15 lbs. of hay per day, how many tons will 
he be fed in a year? How much is it worth at $6.00 per ton? 



184 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



3. If a man spends 1 hour per day caring for horses, how much 
time will he spend in a year? How much time is this per horse? How 
much is this labor worth at 14c. per hour? 

FEEDING 

Feed is the greatest general expense in keeping a horse. 
This fact and the fact that there are many different ways of 
feeding and kinds of feed make it evident that in the feeding 
of horses is a great opportunity for waste or saving. The 
average cost of feed (hay or grain) for a farm work horse 
has been found by the Minnesota Experiment Station to 
be about $50.00 per year. If one is keeping several horses, 
there is an expenditure sufficiently large to be worthy of 
consideration. 

Concentrated Food. — A horse has but one stomach 

and that is not 
nearly so large as 
the stomach of a 
cow. On this ac- 
count a horse can 
not eat as much 
roughage (hay and 
fodder) as a cow, 
and must have a 
larger proportion of 
concentrated feed, 
as corn, oats, etc., 
and horses have 
less time in which 
to eat than cattle. 
A horse at work is 
busy for about ten hours each day, and has only the night 
in which to eat less concentrated feeds. Four pounds of 
oats, which is a fairly good feed for a horse, contains .42 
lbs. of protein, 2.0 lbs. of carbohydrates and .15 lbs. of fat. 
Four pounds of timothy hay contains .11 lbs. of protein, 
1.72 lbs. of carbohydrates and .06 lbs. of fat. A horse can 
eat 4 lbs. of oats in ten to twenty minutes, while it would 
take him about an hour to eat four pounds of hay. 

At noon a work horse seldom has a chance to eat as 
much as he wants; but, if he has a good feed of grain, he 




Figure 78. — Horses at work. 



HORSES 185 

can come more nearly getting what he needs than if he is 
fed only hay. 

More Grain Than Roughage. — For the reasons given 
above, a good ration for a horse at heavy work must con- 
tain more grain than roughage by weight; while a good 
ration for a milch cow will contain fully twice as much rough- 
age as grain. 

Roughage is a much cheaper form of feed than grain. 
For example, oats at 32e. per bushel cost Ic. per pound; 
while hay at $5.00 per ton costs but Ic. for four pounds. 

Smce a horse at work must have a large proportion of 
grain, it is very important that one try to feed as cheap a 
grain as possible to get the desired results. 

Oats and Com. — The favorite feed for horses is oats 
and timothy hay. The average cost of oats per pound is 
over Ic, while the average cost of shelled corn is about 
^^c. per pound. The grain feed alone for a horse costs 
about $50.00 per year. If corn can be used to replace all, 
or a part of, the oats, a considerable saving can be made. 

We have learned that there are two general classes of 
feed: nitrogenous or muscle-forming feeds, and non-nitro- 
genous or fat and heat-forming feeds. Most of the common 
farm feeds have both nitrogenous matter (protein) and 
non-nitrogenous matter (carbohydrates), but the proportion 
of these compounds varies. 

The most common feeds that have a comparatively 
large amount of protein, are bran, oats, clover and alfalfa 
hay. The feeds containing large quantities of carbohy- 
drates are corn, barley, timothy or wild hay, and corn 
fodder. In the grain feeds, those containing a large pro- 
portion of protein are more expensive than those rich in 
carbohydrates; while in the roughage, clover hay, which is 
rich in protein, is cheaper than timothy, which is very poor 
in protein. These facts make it evident that the needed 
protein may be furnished in roughage cheaper than in grain. 

Com and Clover Hay. — If corn is to replace oats as the 
grain feed for horses, some feed rich in protein must be used 
for roughage. Clover is the cheapest form of roughage that 
can be produced on the farm, and is rich in protein. There 
is a general belief among horsemen that clover hay is not 



186 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



good for horses. Poor and dusty clover hay may not be; 
but good, bright, well cured clover hay, fed in moderation, 
is a very good kind of hay for horses. 




Figure 79. — Making clover hay. Clover sliould be grown and fed ou every farm. 
It is a very cheap nitrogenous feed. 

Actual experiments at the Ohio Experiment Station 
have shown that horses fed mixed timothy and clover hay, 
kept just as well, were able to do just as much work and 
showed just as good spirit, when fed corn as when fed oats, 
and that a pound of corn on the cob was worth as much for 
horse feed as a pound of oats. If horses can be fed corn 
and clover hay without detriment to them, the cost of 
keeping a work horse can be reduced $10.00 to $20.00 
per year. These data are worthy of study and a fair trial. 
Questions: 

1. Can you give any way by which the cost of feed for a horse 
may be reduced without injury to the horse? 

2. What can you say of the relative value of corn and oats as 
feed for horses, and the cost per pound of each? 

3. Compare timothy and clover hay as to their feeding value. 
Arithmetic: 

1. If com is worth 54c. per bushel, what is the cost per ton of 
shelled corn (56 lbs. per bushel)? Of ear corn (72 lbs. per bushel)? 

2. If it costs $16.20 per acre to grow a crop of corn and husk it 



HORSES 187 

from the standing stalks, what does it cost to produce a bushel of corn 
when it yields 40 bushels per acre? How much does such corn cost 
per ton of shelled corn? Per ton of ear com? 

3. If it costs $9.50 per acre to produce a crop of 2 tons of clover, 
how much does it cost per ton to produce clover hay? 

FEEDING HORSES AT HEAVY LABOR 

Requirements of a Horse. — A balanced ration for a 
horse at hard work must contain digestible nutrients in 
approximately the following amounts: .18 lbs. of protein, 
1.2 lbs. of carbohydrates, and .05 lbs. of fat, per 100 lbs. 
live weight of horse. Thus a horse weighing 1,000 lbs. 
requires, when at hard labor, 1.80 lbs. of protein, 12.0 
lbs. of carbohydrates and .5 lbs. of fat. 

Combination of Feeds. — The proper combination of 
the feeds requires some thought and some figuring, but 
is a work that should be done on every farm or anywhere 
that horses are fed grain. Only by studying the feeding 
value of the different feeds, and their prices, can one be 
sure of the most economical ration. Sometimes it pays 
one to sell the feeds on hand and buy others in which the 
nutrients can be obtained more cheaply. As the market 
prices of the different feeds are changeable, one has a con- 
stantly varying prol^lem. The wide awake feeder always 
has something to think about that is worth while. 

Rations for a 1,200 lb. Horse at Heavy Work.— A 1,200 
lb. horse at heavy work requires 2.16 lbs. of protein, 14.40 
lbs. of carbohydrates, and .60 lbs. of fat. 

The following rations will approximately supply these 
requirements: See table on page 165. 

Ration No. I 

Pro. C. H. Fat 

Oats, 16 lbs 1.712 8.04 .608 

Timothy hay, 14 lbs 392 6.08 .196 

Total nutrients 2.104 14.12 .804 

Ration No. II 

Pro. C. H. Fat 

Oorn, 15 lbs 1.185 10.00 .64 

Clover hay, 14 lbs 994 5.30 .256 

Total nutrients 2.179 15.30 .896 



188 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



Ration No. HI 

Pro. C. H. Fat 

Com, 10 lbs 79 6.69 .43 

Bran, 7 lbs 83 2.94 .17 

Timothy hay, 14 lbs 392 6.08 .196 



Total nutrieots 2.012 15.71 



.796 



Each of the rations given above suppUes approximately 
the needed amount of each of the digestible nutrients, also 

nearly the same amount 
of bulk. One may reason- 
ably conclude that, of 
these rations, the one that 
can be most cheaply and 
conveniently supplied will 
he satisfactory. A little 
figuring will convince any 
one that there is a con- 
siderable saving by feed- 
ing ration No. II over 
feeding No. I, and that 
usually No. Ill will be 
cheaper than No. I. 

If one is feeding a 
heavy ration, as one of 
the above, the grain should 
be reduced considerably, 
if a horse is to be idle for 
a few days. 

A change of feed occa- 
sionally is probably better 
than to feed continually 
any one ration, as an ani- 
mal appreciates a change 




Figure 80. — Bundle corn is a cheap feed. 



of diet fully as much as a person. An occasional feed 
of bran, when horses are fed timothy hay and oats, 
is a gi*eat benefit to a horse, as it aids in regulatmg his 
bowels. The addition of clover hay to the ration cheapens 
it, and adds greatly to its value, if the clover hay is bright 
and well cured. Some feeders are prejudiced against clover 



HORSES 



18.9 



hay for horses, but good clover hay fed in moderation is 

a very desirable kind of feed for them. 

Questions: 

1. What do you understand by a balanced ration? 

2. State the requirement, in digestible nutrients, of a horse at 
hard labor. 

3. What can you say regarding the proper combination of feeds 
for horses? 

Arithmetic: 

1. If oats are worth 40c. per bushel and timothy hay is worth 
$6.00 per ton, what is the cost of Ration No. I? 

2. If corn is worth 54c. per pushel (56 lbs.) and clover hay is 
worth $6.00 per ton, what is the cost of Ration No. 11? 

3. If bran is worth $24.00 per ton, corn 54c. per bushel, and tim- 
othy hay $6.00 per ton, what is the cost of Ration No. III? 

FEEDING HORSES WHEN IDLE 

Idle Horses. — Farm horses are idle or do very little 
work for a considerable portion of the year, and when 
they are idle one can gi'eatly reduce the amount of grain 
they get and increase their allowance of hay. They do 
not need so much to eat, because they are expending very 
little energy. They have plenty of time to eat roughage, 
and, as roughage is cheaper than grain, it cheapens the 
ration very much to reduce the proportion of grain. 




Figure 81. — A good team of farm mares at work. If much of the farm work ia 
done with mare.s, and they are allowed to raise colts, the cost of horse labor can 
be materially reduced. 



190 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

Maintenance. — All that a mature horse needs when idle 
is enough to maintain his body. This is called a main- 
tenance ration. If the horse is poor when the fall work is 
finished, he will need enough more than the maintenance 
ration to enal^le him to add to his weight the amount neces- 
sary to put him in good condition. A young horse, three 
to five years old, is still growing, and will need enough more 
than a maintenance ration to supply his needs. 

There is always team work to do on the farm in the 
winter; and if several horses are kept some of them may be 
used for the winter's work and fed accordingly. The others 
should be kept over as cheaply as possible. 

If kept comfortable, horses will do very well on just 
hay, preferably clover, and cornstalks. If it is desired to 
increase their weight, a little bundle corn may be fed in place 
of the stalks. 

Ration of Bundle Corn and Clover. — Corn may be 
grown, cut shocked and hauled in from the field for about 
$14.75 per acre. If it yields 40 bushels per acre, there will 
be 2,240 lbs. of corn and probably about 3,000 lbs. of corn- 
stalks. These cornstalks are not the best kind of feed, as 
they are too mature to be easily digested; but they add 
bulk to a ration. Maintenance requirements for horses 
have not been so carefully worked out as for cattle, "and 
standards vary from .06 to .07 ll)s. of protein and .6 to .7 lbs. 
of carbohydrates per 100 lbs. live weight of horse. A 1,200 
lb. horse requires, when idle, about .8 lbs. of protein, 8 lbs. 
carbohydrates and .1 lbs. of fat. The following combina- 
tions of common farm feeds will l^e found to supply about 
the nutrients needed. See table on page 175. 

Ration No. I 

Pro. C. H. Fat 

Timothy hay, 15 lbs 42 6.51 .21 

Oats, 4 lbs 428 2.00 .142 

.848 8.51 .352 
Ration No. II 

Pro. C. H. Fat 

CornStovei,15lbs: 21 4.68 .105 

Clover hay, 8 lbs 568 3.02 .144 

.778 7.60 .249 



H0R8ES 191 

Ration No. Ill 

Pro. C. H. Fat 

Bundle corn, 14 lbs 59 6.13 .317 

Mixed hay, 8 lb.s 396 3.25 .128 

.986 9.38 .445 

Bundle corn is about 4-7 ear corn and 3-7 stover. Ear 
corn is 80% shelled corn and 20% cob. So 14 lbs. of bundle 
corn contains 6.4 lbs. of corn, 1.6 lbs. of cob and 6 lbs. of 
stover. Mixed hay is assumed to be half clover and half 
timothy. 

Ration No. I represents a very common ration for idle 
horses. This ration would be changed very little, if good 
slough hay or upland hay were used in place of the timothy. 
Ration No. II is a little cheaper than No. I, and will give 
good results, if both the stover (cornstalks from which 
ears have been husked) and clover are good. 

Ration No. Ill provides more nutrients than the others, 
and will supply the needs of a 1,200 lb. horse that is grow- 
ing or gaining in weight, or maintain a horse that is doing 
some light work about the farm, as hauling straw or manure 
for a few hours occasionally. It is assumed that 14 lbs. 
of bundle corn contain 6 lbs. of corn and 8 lbs. of corn 
stover, and that the mixed hay is half clover and half timothy. 
Questions: 

1. Why do horses need less feed when idle than when at work? 

2. What is meant by a maintenance ration? 

3. What can you say regarding feed for idle horses? 
Arithmetic: 

1. What is the cost of Ration No. 1, if timothy hay is worth 
$6.00 per ton and oats are worth 38c. per bushel? 

2. What is the cost of Ration No. 2, if corn stover is worth S3.00 
per ton and clover hay is worth $6.00 per ton? 

3. What is the cost of Ration No. 3, if bundle corn costs $4.00 
per ton and mixed hay is worth $6.00 per ton? 

Exercises: 

1. If possible, weigh the feed of one or more horses for a month. 
Give results in detail, stating the kind and amount of labor performed. 
Estimate costs and value of service. 

2. Make a list of all the items of expense in maintaining a horse. 
In how many different ways does a horse pay for itself? 



CHAPTER XV 
CATTLE 

TYPES AND BREEDS 

Breeds. — There are a great many different breeds of 
cattle, just as there are many different nationalities or races 
of people. Each breed seems well adapted to the particu- 
lar community in which it was developed. Animals vary 
in character with the conditions under which they have 
developed, which accounts for the fact that all the breeds 
of cattle have been developed from the original wild cattle. 
Two men may start out with herds of cattle that are very 
similar. One will go to a cold, rugged climate, where feed 
is scarce and conditions are severe. The other may go to a 
warmer climate, where an abundance of feed is produced. 
Each man will have a different ideal and each will select 
the animals each year that will best please him. After sev- 
eral generations of cattle have been produced the two herds 
will be quite different. 

Classes of Stock. — Every boy should know the common 
breeds of cattle, at least by sight and name and also know 
to what class each belongs. Cattle are commonly classed as 
beef cattle, those selected and raised only for meat, dairy 
cattle, those selected and raised only for milk and butter 
production, and dual purpose or general purpose cattle, 
those raised for both dairy products and beef. By far the 
greater number of cattle in the United States do not belong 
to any breed, because they have not been carefully bred 
for any particular purpose, and as a result are by no means 
uniform in character as pure-bred cattle are. Such cattle 
are called scrubs. 

Pure-bred cattle have been raised for a long time, that 
is, for many generations, by men who have had a definite 
object or ideal in view. All the animals that have not 
appeared or performed up to the ideals of their owners have 
been sold. Only the select animals were kept. After fol- 
lowing this practice for very many years all, or very nearly 



CATTLE 



193 



all, the animals within a breed are quite similar. These 
animals are then recognized as a distinct breed of cattle, 
and are called pure-bred. They are then given a name that 
indicates the country or community in which they were 
developed, or some characteristic of the breed. 

Beef breeds are those bred particularly for meat. Beef 
cattle have short legs, deep bodies and broad backs. They 
have been selected for their meat-producing qualities and 
consequently have a tendency to lay on flesh, that is, fatten 




Figure 82. — A Shorthorn bull, a beef type. 

more easily than animals selected for milk production. 
Beef cows usually give very much less milk than cows of 
the strictly dairy breeds. Shorthorns are the most common 
of the beef breeds. They originated in northeast England, 
in the counties of Durham and York. On this account 
they are often called Durham cattle. Shorthorns are 
red, red and white, white or roan in color, and are one of 
the large breeds. Some families of Shorthorns have been 
selected for milk production and are called "Milking Short- 
horns." Herefords, another distinct beef breed, originated 
in Herefordshire, England, from which they get their name. 
They are also a heavy, large breed and are easily recognized 



194 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

by their color, red with white faces. They are sometimes 
called "Whitefaces." Aberdeen Angus cattle originated 
in Aberdeenshire, Scotland. They are polled (hornless) 
cattle, jet black in color. They are very round, black cattle, 
somewhat Hghter in weight than Shorthorns, but are thick 




Figure 83. — A group of Herefords, a beef type. 

fleshed and are regarded as a very good beef breed. Gallo- 
ways, another black polled breed of cattle, were originated 
in the hilly section of southwest Scotland. They have very 
short legs, heavy shaggy coats of hair, are very rugged and 
incUned to be wild. They are smaller than the Aberdeen 
Angus cattle, do not mature quite so young, but make a 
very good quality of beef. 

Dairy breeds have been selected especially for large milk 
production. Compared with beef cattle, they are more 
angular in form, with narrow backs, thin necks, large udders, 
and tend to produce milk rather than to lay on flesh. 

These breeds are well adapted to farms where milk is the 
chief product desired. They are generally lighter in weight 
than the beef breeds. Holsteins are the largest of the dairy 
breeds, are black and white spotted in color and give the 
largest amount of milk per cow of any breed. Their milk 
tests low in butter-fat. They originated in Holland, and 
are gaining great popularity in this country. Guernseys 



CATTLE 



195 




Figure 84. — A group of fine dairy cows. 

are another favorite dairy breed. They are smaller than 
Holsteins and give richer, but less milk. They are yellow- 
ish or reddish fawn in color, often with some white spots, 
especially on the underline. They originated on the Island 
of Guernsey in the English channel. Jerseys also originated 
in the English channel, but on the Island of Jersey. They 
are smaller than Guernseys, are fawn colored, but may 
he either light or dark. They are more widely distributed in 




^ Figure 85. — A Guernsey bull, a dairy type. 



19fi ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

this country than any other dairy breed. They are noted 
for the richness of their milk. Ayrshires are a very beauti- 
ful breed of dairy cattle, originated in the county of Ayr 
in Scotland. They are red and white, or brown and white 
in color and are about the same size as the Guernseys, but 
are smoother in form and have more of a tendency to lay on 
flesh than any of the other dairy breeds. Their milk is 




Figure 86. — A Guernsey cow, u il:iiiy type. 



richer than that of Holsteins, but not so rich as Jersey or 
Guernsey milk. 

Dual purpose breeds are bred for both milk and beef; 
consequently they are neither strictly beef nor strictly dairy 
type but are part of each. Most of the scrub cattle in the 
country would be classed as dual purpose. Red Polled 
cattle are the only pure-bred cattle that are usually placed 
in this class. They originated in England, are medium in 
size, entirely red in color and have no horns. Many of the 
cows of this breed are excellent milkers, and, when fattened, 
animals of this breed produce very good beef. Shorthorns 



CATTLE 



197 



that have been selected particularly for milk are included 
in this class. 

Other breeds of less importance in this country are the 
Dutch Belted, Brown Swiss, Devon, Kerry and French 
Canadian. 




Figure 87. — A Holstein cow, a dairy type. 



Questions: 

1. What do you understand by the term pure-bred cattle? Hov\' 
do they differ from scrubs? 

2. Name some of the characteristics of beef cattle, and describe 
four beef breeds. 

3. Name some of the characteristics of dairy cattle, and describe 
four dairy breeds. 

Arithmetic: 

1. A keeps 5 common cows. Each gives 4,000 lbs. of 4% milk 
in a year. How much is the product worth at 32c. per pound of butter- 
fat? (4% milk is milk containing 4 lbs. of butter-fat per 100 lbs.) 

2. B keeps 5 pure bred dairy cows. Each gives 6,000 lbs. bf 5% 
milk in a year. How much is the product worth at 32c. per pound of 
butter-fat. 



198 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 




Figure 88. — A Jersey cow, a dairy tyi)e. 

3. A sells ten beef steers, weighing 1,400 lbs each. How much 
do they bring at 7c. per pound? 

4. B sells ten steers, weighing 1,100 lbs. each. How much do 
they bring at 5c per pound? 




Figure 89. — A Shorthorn cow and calf of the dual-purpoae type. 



CATTLE 199 

CARE AND MANAGEMENT. 

A farmer may have the best specimens of dairy cattle or 
beef-producing breeds, and yet, if he does not use judicious 
care in the management of them, the results are likely to 
end in loss and disappointment. 

In addition to the general suggestions given in the 
chapter on live stock, the following points in regard to the 
care and management of cattle deserve attention. 

Shade. — In summer it is very desirable that cattle be 
provided with the natural shade of trees, if possible. This 
promotes their comfort. Without the distraction of heat 
and flies dairy cows give more milk and beef cattle fatten 
more rapidly. If there are no trees in the pasture, arti- 
ficial shade should in some way be furnished. 

Water. — Both milch cows and steers should be well 
supphed with fresh clean water and never be allowed to 
drink from stagnant pools or mudholes. If running water 
is not convenient, well water is good, if supplied in plentiful 
quantities, preferably by a wind pump. 

Our best dairymen find that it pa3's to take the chill 
off water for the cows. A very little fuel in a tank heater 
will take off the chill of the water. If it is not warmed in 
this way, the expensive feed that the cow eats will be used 
to warm the water. Besides, on a cold day a cow will not 
drink as much ice-cold water as her system requires. 

Salt. — If salt is not kept constantly before cattle, it 
should be given to them regularly and frequently. It 
ought to be so placed as to be easily accessible and where it 
will be protected from rain. 

Shelter. — It is especially true of milch cows and young 
stock that they require comfortable shelter. This is not 
simply a matter of comfort, but of dollars and cents. Steers 
do not require so warm quarters as long as they are pro- 
tected from the storms and the wind; but they should be 
kept dry and given good bedding. Steers are fed more 
heavily and are fatter. They are thus better able to with- 
stand cold. 

Disease. — Occasionally, as recently, the "foot and mouth 
disease" makes its appearance with great disaster to cattle. 
No remedy is known for this epidemic except the slaughter- 



200 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

ing and burial of the affected animals and the maintenance 
of the most perfect sanitary conditions. The ordinary disease 
which is most prevalent among cattle is tuberculosis. This is a 
germ disease and is likely to originate in poorly ventilated 
and unclean buildings. Hence the necessity for light, ven- 
tilation and cleanliness. To guard against this disease it is 
best to kill all affected animals and to have each newly 
purchased animal tested before it is brought on the farm. 
There is danger in keeping one diseased animal as it may 
infect others through feeding troughs and grass. 

Exercise.^ — All animals need some exercise, but milch 
cows should not be left outside to shiver in the cold. One 
practical dairyman says, "Leave the cows out no longer 
than you care to stand out in the same place with no 
overcoat on and nothing to do." If one follows this rule, 
cows will be left out but a short time in the cold or wet 
weather. Keep the cows in the barn most of the time 
during the winter, and give them a good bed and plenty to 
eat and drink. 

Flies. — It is important to protect cattle as much as 
possible from flies. Relief is afforded by darkening the stable 
with curtains dropped over the windows. These may be 
made from burlap or old sacks. An effective spray, made 
of three parts of fish oil to one part of kerosene, may be 
applied as needed. 

Bedding. — Plenty of good bedding is not only essential 
for the comfort of cattle, but it pays for itself in value as 
fertilizer. Whatever the bedding used may be, it should 
be kept under cover so that it is dry and sweet. In this 
condition it will keep the barn sweeter and freer from dust 
and will also absorb more liquid. 

Questions: 

1. Cattle naturally seek a shady place in hot weather. Why? 

2. Why must cattle have plenty of clean water to do well? 

3. Why do fattening steers not require so warm shelter as milch 
cows? 

4. In what ways can we prevent disease in cattle? 

5. What are the advantages of good bedding? 
Arithmetic: 

1. If six head of cattle worth $50 each were condemned and half 
ine value paid by the state, what would be the farmer's loss? 



CATTLE 201 

2. If a cow drinks 90 pounds of water in a day, how many gal- 
lons would a herd of 12 cows drink in a day? (A gallon of water weighs 
about 8H lbs.). How long would it take a boy to pump sufficient 
water for these cows if he could pump four gallons in a minute? 

FEEDING 
REQUIREMENTS OF DAIRY COWS 

Maintenance. — Every animal requires a certain amount 
of feed for bodily maintenance, even though it may be idle, 
to keep up the body heat, for digestion, and for the other 
functions of the body. The requirements for maintenance 
are approximately the same for all animals of the same 
class and weight and kept under similar conditions. 

The amount of such feed has been determined by feeding 
for several months, mature, idle animals kept under normal 
conditions, and by weighing the feed fed and weighing the 
animals, and by regulating the feed so that the various 
animals neither gain nor lose in weight. 

Prof. T. L. Haecker, of the Minnesota Experiment 
Station, has found by extensive tests that .07 of a pound of 
protein, .7 of a pound of carbohydrates, and .01 of a pound 
of fat are required per hundred pounds live weight to main- 
tain a cow not giving milk. If a cow weighs 1,000 pounds, 
it will require ten times these amounts for maintenance. 

Nutrients Required. — Prof. Haecker has found also 
that the more milk a cow gives the more feed she needs, 
and the richer the milk the more feed required to produce 
it. For the convenience of feeders he has compiled a table 
from which the following is taken. Any one, knowing the 
weight of a cow and the amount and richness of her milk, 
can easily determine the amount of nutrients she needs for 
maintenance and to produce milk. 

Nutrients Reqiiired to Produce One Pound of Milk of a Given 
Per Cent of Butter-fat 

Per Cent Fat Protem Carbohydrates Fat 

3 .042 .19 .013 

3.5 .045 .21 .015 

*4 .048 .23 .016 

4.5 .051 .25 .018 

5 .054 .27 .019 
5.5 .057 .29 .020 

6 .060 .31 .022 



202 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

From the last table it is an easy matter to determine 
the amount of nutrients required to produce a given number 
of pounds of milk of a given per cent of fat. For example, 
a cow that gives 15 lbs. of 4% milk will require, for its 
production, 15 times as much of the nutrients as is required 
to produce one pound of milk of the same quality. (See 
star in table on the preceding page.) 

Fifteen times .048 lbs. of protein, .23 lbs. of carbohydrates 
and .016 lbs. of fat equals .72 lbs. of protein, 3.45 lbs. of carbo- 
hydrates and .24 lbs. of fat. Thus, it will be seen that a 
cow requires .72 lbs. of protein, 3.45 lbs. of carbohydrates 
and .24 lbs. of fat, simply for the production of milk. In 
addition to this, she must be supplied with feed for bodily 
maintenance. If the cow weighs 1,100 lbs. she will re- 
quire 11 times .07 lbs. of protein, .7 lbs. of carbohydrates 
and .01 lbs. of fat (the amount required to maintain 100 
lbs. live weight) or .77 lbs. of protein, 7.7 lbs. of carbohy- 
drates and .11 lbs. of fat. We know, then, that a cow 
weighing eleven hundred pounds, and giving 15 pounds of 
4% milk requires daily: 

Pro. C. H. Fat 

For maintenance 77 7.7 .11 

For 15 lbs. of 4% milk .72 3.45 .24 

Total daily requirement 1.49 11.15 .35 

From the above it will be seen that, to determine the 
requirements of a cow, one must know approximately her 
weight, her daily milk production and its per cent of fat. 
If these facts are known, it is, with the table, a very simple 
mathematical problem to determine her daily needs. 

Questions: 

1. What do you understand by the term "food of maintenance?" 

2. How have feeders found out how much feed animals require 
for maintenance? 

3. Why does a cow require more feed when giving 20 lbs. of 4% 
milk than when she is giving 10 lbs. of 4% milk? 

4. What three factors must be known in order to determine the 
daily feed requirements of a cow? 

Arithmetic: 

1. For bodily maintenance a cow requires .07 lbs. of protein, 
.7 lbs. of - carbohydrates and .01 lbs. of fat per 100 lbs. live weight. 
How many pounds of each nutrient are required to maintain a cow 
weighing 1,050 lbs? 



CATTLE 203 

2. If .051 lbs. of protein, .25 lbs. of carbohydrates and .018 lbs. 
of fat are required to produce 1 lb. of 43^% milk, how many pounds of 
each nutrient are required to produce 18 lbs. of 43^% milk? 

3. How much protein, carbohydrates and fat wUl a 1,050-pound 
cow giving 18 lbs. of 43^% milk require? 

TO COMPOUND A RATION 

Proportion of Grain to Roughage. — When one knows 
a cow's requirements it is a very simple matter, by using 
the table on page 165, showing the composition of feeds, 
to compound a ration that will supply them. 

We have found that an eleven hundred pound cow 
giving 15 lbs. of 4% milk daily requires daily 1.49 lbs. of 
protein, 11.15 lbs. of carbohydrates and .35 lbs. of fat. 
A cow could not eat enough roughage to supply this amount 
of nutrient. She must have some more concentrated feed 
such as grain. Many dairymen feed grain in the proportion 
of 1 lb; of grain to each 3 lbs. of milk that the cow gives, 
and supply the rest of the nutrients required by feeding 
roughage. This is practically a safe basis. Thus the cow, 
whose record is given above, would require about 5 lbs. of 
grain (as she gives 15 lbs. of milk daily) and roughage to 
complete the ration. 

A Simple Ration. — To compound a ration one must 
know the composition of various feeds to be fed. See 
table, page 165. 
Daily Ration for 1,100 Pound Cow Giving 15 Lbs. of 4% Milk Daily 

Pro. C. H. Fat 

Com, 4 lbs 316 2.67 .172 

Bran, lib 119 .42 .025 

Clover hay, 10 lbs 710 3.78 .180 

Fodder corn, 10 lbs 37 4.14 .146 

Total nutrients 1.515 11.01 .523 

It will be seen that this ration contains approximately 
the right amount of protein, for which no other nutrient 
may be substituted, but is a little deficient in carbohydrates. 
There is .17 lbs. more fat than is required, which may 
be used to make up the shortage in carbohydrates. We have 
learned that fat and carbohydrates are used for the same 
purposes in the animal body, and that fat is worth 2.2 
times as much as carbohydrates, hence the excess fat (.17x2.2) 
is equal to .37 of a pound of carbohydrates; which, added 



204 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



to the 11.01 lbs. furnished by the ration, makes 11.38 lbs. 
or approximately what is required. 

Features of the Previous Ration.— It is not usually de- 
sirable to feed as large a proportion of corn to dairy cows 
as is provided by this ration, as corn has a tendency to 
produce fat rather than milk. But when clover hay, which 
is rich in protein, is fed, a large proportion of corn or other 
non-nitrogenous grains may be used. When timothy, 




Figure 90. — Mixing the grain feed consisting of 100 lbs. of bran and 400 lbs. of 

cornmeal. 

corn stover or wild hay, which are deficient in protein, 
are fed for roughage, a larger amount of bran or other nitrog- 
enous grain would be required. 

Since clover can be grown as cheaply as any hay crop, 
it is advisable to provide plenty of well cured clover hay; 
for it makes possible the use of cheaper grain feeds, as corn 
and barley, instead of oats, bran and oil meal, which must 
be fed, if non-nitrogenous roughage is used. 



UATTLE 205 

Feeding a Ration. — To feed a cow such a ration, it is 
not necessary to weigh each day 4 lbs. of corn, 1 lb. of bran 
and the hay and fodder. One would mix 100 lbs. or more of 
bran with four times as much corn. In feeding, use a measure 
that holds the desired number of pounds of the mixture. 
By weighing the feeds a few times one can soon approximate 
the right amount of each without weighing it. 
Questions: 

1. In what way can one determine approximately the amount 
of grain needed by a cow? 

2. Tell how to compound a ration for a cow. 

3. Would you weigh the ration each time you feed? 
Arithmetic: 

1. What is the cost of a ration composed of 4 lbs. of corn at 
54c. per bushel, (56 lbs.), 1 lb. of bran at $20 per ton, 10 lbs. of clover 
hay at $5.00 per ton, and 10 lbs. of corn fodder at .$4.00 per ton? 

2. A cow fed the above ration gives 15 lbs. of 4% milk. What 
is the milk worth when butter-fat is selling for 30c. per pound? 

3. How many pounds of protein in one ton of bran? What does 
it cost per pound when bran costs $20 per ton? 

POOR AND GOOD RATIONS 

A Poor Ration. — A very common ration fed to dairy 
cows on the farm is composed of slough hay, corn stover, 
and ground barley and corn. Suppose a 1,000-lb. cow 
gives 20 lbs. of milk testing 4.5% fat. She will require: 

Pro. C. H. Fat 

For maintenance 7 7. .1 

For 20 lbs. of 4.5% milk 1.02 5. .36 



Total requirements 1.72 12. .46 

A cow giving 20 lbs. of milk would require 7 or 8 lbs. 

of grain. Let us see what kind of a ration she would get, 
if fed the above mentioned feeds: 

Daily Ration for a 1,000 lb. Cow Giving 20 lbs. of 4.5% Milk 

Pro. C. H. Fat 

Corn 4 lbs.' .316 2.67 .172 

Barley 3 lbs. .252 1.96 .048 

Slough hay 12 lbs. .312 5.03 .132 

Com stover 12 lbs. .168 3.74 .084 



Total nutrients 1.048 13.40 .536 

This ration would be all a cow could possibly eat, as it 
supplies 31 lbs. of dry feed, yet it comes far short of supply- 
ing enough protein. We have learned that neither carbo- 



206 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

hydrates nor fats can take the place of protein. A cow 
must have sufficient protein or she cannot maintain her 
body or produce milk. It is not to be wondered at, then, 
that a cow fed a ration similar to the above would gradually 
decrease in her milk flow until her requirements balanced 
the protein she was getting. She would then get more 
carbohydrates (fat-forming feed) than needed for milk 
production, and so would begin to fatten, an undesirable 
result in a milch cow. 

A Good Ration. — The required nutrients for the cow 
mentioned above could be supplied by replacing 3 lbs. of 
the corn or barley with 3 lbs. of oil meal (try it) ; but such 
a ration would be more expensive and no better than if the 
12 lbs. of slough hay and 7 ll)s. of the corn stover were 
replaced with 16 lbs. of clover hay. This would make a 
good ration and supply the need of the cow. 

Daily Ration for a 1,000 lb. Cow Giving 20 lbs. of 4.5% Milk 

Pro. C. H. Fat 

Corn 4 lbs. .316 2.67 .172 

Barley 3 lbs. .252 1.96 .048 

Corn stover 5 His. .070 1.56 .035 

Clover hay 16 lbs. 1.136 6.04 .288 

Total nutrients 1.774 12.23 .533 

This ration emphasizes the fact that every farmer 
should provide plenty of good clover hay for his cattle. 
Questions: 

1. Can you teU what is wrong with the ration given under the 
head "A poor ration?" 

2. Why would a cow be unable to keep up her flow of milk, if 
fed such a ration? 

3. Why is the ration given under the head "A good ration" 
better than the other? 

Arithmetic: 

1. Find the cost of the grain in the above ration, 4 lbs. of corn 
and 3 lbs. of barley. (Corn 50c. per bushel (56 lbs.), and barley 50c. 
per bushel (48 lbs.).) 

2. Find the cost of a similar ration, if 3 lbs. of com were replaced 
with 3 lbs. of oil meal, making the grain ration 1 lb. of corn, 3 lbs. of 
oil meal and 3 lbs. of barley. (Oil meal costs $35.00 per ton.) 

3. What is the entire cost of the last ration given, corn 50c. per 
bushel, barley 50c. per bushel, clover hay $5 per ton and corn stover 
$3 per ton? 

4. Find the requirements of a 1,200 lb. cow, giving 35 lbs. of milk 
testing 3.5% fat. 



CATTLE 



207 



SUCCULENT FEED 

Kind of Ration. — On page 192, a ration was suggested 
for an eleven hundred pound dairy cow giving 15 lbs. of 
4% milk. This ration consisted of 4 lbs. of cornmeal, 1 
lb. of bran, 12 lbs. of clover hay and 10 lbs, of fodder corn. 
It suppHed all the nutrients in the proportion needed by 
the cow, and, if the cow were made comfortable and regu- 
larly fed and milked, she would do fairly well. Such a 
ration is more economical and will give better returns than 

the ordinary ration of 
timothy or wild hay, 
corn stover and some 
of the common farm 
grains, as barley or corn. 
Cows Need Succu- 
ulent Feed. — We know 
that cows usually give 
the most milk when 
they are in good pas- 
ture. Their chief feed 
is then green grass. 
This fact would indi- 
cate that such feed is 
better for milk produc- 
tion than the dry feeds 
fed in winter. Green 
feed is more easily di- 
gested than dry, coarse 
fodder, such as hay, 
fodder corn and corn 
stover. Less energy, 
moreover, is required to 
digest it, it tends to 
keep the body and di- 
gestion in better con- 
dition, and it stimu- 
lates the appetite. In the winter, when fresh vegetables 
are scarce and we eat potatoes, bread and meat for a 
long time, we become tired of them and crave some- 
thing succulent, as fruit and green vegetables. In well 




Figure 91. — Filling a silo at University 
Farm. Corn is cut while still green, when 
ears are well glazed, hauled directly, cut 
and put in the silo. Silage does not spoil, 
because air is kept away from it. It is still 
green and succulent when fed. 



208 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

regulated homes such food is supphed by canned or fresh 
vegetables and fruits. The barrel of apples in the cellar 
is not exceedingly valuable from the standpoint of amount of 
nourishment it contains but from the succulence and re- 
freshing effect of the apples. In like manner it pays to 
supply the Uve stock on the farm with something to take 
the place of the green grass they get in the summer. The 
whole ration need not be of succulent material, but that a 




Figure 92. — A load of mangels. Mangels may be grown at from $1.00 to $2.00 
per ton. They are a very valuable addition to the dry feeds commonly fed in 
winter, as they are palatable and succulent. 

portion of it should be is quite essen.tial to best results. 
Just as an apple each day is good for a boy or girl, so are a 
few pounds of succulent feed (such as roots or silage) each 
day good for farm animals. 

Ensilage is one of the cheapest succulent feeds during 
the winter, that is, when one has a large herd and is able 
to build a silo and buy the necessary machinery for handling 
the crop. It is good feed, handy and very much relished b}^ 
all classes of stock. 



CATTLE 209 

Ensilage is usually corn, (sometimes other crops), stored 
green in a large tank called a silo. The silo must be air- 
tight or nearly so, as the green feed is kept from spoiling 
by keeping the air away from it — ^just as berries are pre- 
served in fruit jars. 

Roots. — Another way by which succulent feed may be 
supplied is by raising roots, as mangels, rutabagas, stock 
carrots, etc. For small herds, roots are cheaper than en- 
silage, as no expensive machinery or storage room is required. 
By planting roots on rich land, fifteen to twenty tons may 
be grown per acre. One half an acre to two acres of roots 
well cared for will supply from eight to twelve cows. 
Questions: 

1. Why do cows usually give more milk in summer than in 
winter? 

2. What is the difference in their feed in summer and winter? 

3. What do animals need in winter in addition to dry feed? 

4. How may succulent feed be supplied to animals in winter? 

5. To what conditions is ensilage better adapted than mangels? 

6. What do people eat in winter to supply succulent food? 
Arithmetic: 

1. If com contains 89% dry matter and mangels contain 9% 
dry matter, how many pounds of mangels are required to supply as 
much dry matter as is supplied by 5 lbs. of corn? 

2. If mangels contain 9% dry matter, how many pounds of water 
in 100 lbs. of mangels? 

3. If mangels yield 20 tons per acre, how many tons of dry matter 
are produced per acre? (Mangels are 9% dry matter.) 

RATIONS CONTAINING SUCCULENT FEED 

Composition of Feeds. — To intelligently compound ra- 
tions with ensilage or roots forming a part, it is necessary to 
know the amount of digestible nutrients in the various 
feeds used. The table on page 165 gives their composition 
in the two rations to be compounded. 

A glance at the table will show that a pound of 
corn silage contains about one third as much digestible 
nutrients as fodder corn. 

This proportion is due to the fact that the ensilage has 
practically as much water in it as when it was cut green 
in the field, while the fodder corn has been dried out (cured). 
In other words three pounds of green corn, cut and shocked 
in the field, will dry out and make about one pound of fodder 



210 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

corn. We would need, then, to feed about three times as 
many pounds of ensilage as of fodder corn to get the same 
amount of nutrients. But ensilage has the additional value 
of stimulating digestion and keeping the animal in a good 
healthy condition. 

Ration Containing Ensilage. — The ration suggested on 
page 193, for an 1,100-pound cow giving 15 pounds of 4 per 
cent milk, as suggested, consisted of 4 pounds of cornmeal, 
1 pound of bran, 10 pounds of clover hay and 10 pounds 
of fodder corn. This supplied approximately the nutrients 
needed by the cow, which are 1.49 pounds of protein, 11.15 
pounds of carbohydrates and .35 of a pound of fat. 

Ration Containing Ensilage, for 1,100 Pound Cow Giving 15 Pounds 
of 4 per Cent Milk 

Pro. C. H. Fat 

Cornmeal 4 lbs. .316 2.67 '.172 

Bran lib. .119 .42 .025 

Clover hay 10 lbs. .710 3.78 .180 

Corn silage 30 lbs. .37 4.30 .210 

Total nutrients 1.515 11.17 .587 

The above ration furnishes approximately the nutri- 
ents required. It differs from the ration given on page 193 
only in containing thirty pounds of corn silage in place of 
ten pounds of fodder corn. So far as nutrients are con- 
cerned, there is very little difference; but a cow would give 
better returns on this ration than on the former, owing 
to the succulence added by the ensilage, which makes the 
whole ration more palatable and more easily digested. 

Ration Containing Roots for 1,100 Pound Cow Giving 15 Potinds 
of 4 per Cent Milk 

Pro. C. H. Fat 

Com 4 lbs. .316 2.67 .172 

Bran lib. .119 .42 .025 

Clover hay 10 lbs. .710 3.78 .180 

Mangels 20 lbs. .200 1.10 .040 

Fodder com 8 lbs. .296 3.31 .117 

Total nutrients 1.641 11.28 .534 

It will be seen that mangels do not provide so much 
nutrient matter per pound as the ensilage, but are a little 
more valuable as a means of furnishing succulence, as 
they are sweet, while ensilage is more or less sour. 



CATTLE 211 

To get enough carbohydrates in this ration it was 
necessary to add some fodder corn. A ration containing 
both clover hay and fodder corn can usually be balanced 
by changing the proportion of these two feeds. Fodder 
corn is rich in carbohydrates and clover hay in protein. 
Questions: 

1. How do fodder corn and corn silage compare in feeding value? 

2. For what reason is a ration containing ensilage better than one 
containing only cured roughage? 

3. In what respect do mangels and ensilage differ? 
Arithmetic: 

1. Find the daily requirements of protein, carbohydrates and 
fat for a 1,000-lb. cow giving 20 lbs. of 4% milk. See page 192. 

2. Find the amount of protein, carbohydrates and fat in 5 lbs. 
of cornmeal, 2 lbs. of bran, 12 lbs. of clover hay and 9 lbs. of fodder 
corn. (See page 165.) 

3. Find the amount of protein, carbohydrates and fat in a ration 
the same as the above, but replace the 9 lbs. of fodder corn with 27 lbs. 
of corn ensilage. 

4. Find the amount of fodder corn and mangels required to fur- 
nish about the same amount of nutrient as 27 lbs. of silage. 

Exercises: 

1. Make a list of all the different breeds of cattle in the community 
.stating which are kept for beef only, which for dairy products only, 
and which for both. 

2. Describe carefully some favorite breed of cattle and set forth 
fully the reasons for the preference. 

3. Keep a record for a month showing amount and value of feed 
given to a dairy cow together with amount and value of all her product, 

4. Observe the care received by cattle on various farms and try 
to show how.icare pays and neglect results in loss. 



CHAPTER XVI 
DAIRYING 

MILK AND ITS CARE 

Milk. — Milk is nature's perfect food for animals. It 
consists of water 87%, sugar (carbohydrates) 5%, fat 4%, 
casein and albumin (protein) 3.3%, and ash .7%. In 1909 
nearly seven and a half billion gallons of milk were pro- 
duced on the farms of the United States, the value of the 
product of which, excluding home consumption, was almost 
six hundred millions of dollars. The average number of 
gallons produced per cow was 362. It is readily seen, 
therefore, that in comparison with the record given below, 
there is much room for improvement in the amount that 
might be realized. At present the world's champion milk- 
producing cow, Lutscke Vale Cornucopia, has produced 
31,243.4 pounds (3,633 gallons) of milk in one year, an aver- 
age of 10 gallons a day. Of this amount 798.96 pounds was 
butterfat. This cow is a Holstein. 

Milk holds the tiny particles of butter-fat in suspension. 
Such a Hquid is called an emulsion. The butter-fat is 
lighter than the rest of the milk, and, therefore, rises to 
the surface; but milk as a whole, is .032 heavier than water. 
As human food milk contains all the elements neces- 
sary to the human body and in very nearly the proportions 
needed. It contains protein, muscle-forming material, in 
casein; carbohydrates, heat and energy-forming material, in 
fat and sugar; and ash, or mineral matter, needed in bone- 
building. The average American family spends from two 
to four times as much for milk, cream and butter as for 
bread. Cow's milk is a very good substitute for mother's 
milk for babies. In fact pure, fresh milk is almost necessary 
for growing children. 

On account of the importance of milk and milk products 
as human food it is very important that they be handled in 
a most careful manner. 



DAIRYING 213 

Care of Milk. — As milk is so extensively used as a 
human food, the proper care of it needs to be emphasized. 
Attention should be given to 

The Stable. — This must be well lighted and ventilated 
to assist in keeping it free from bacteria and odors. Dust 
also should be prevented as much as possible, and coverings 
should be provided for the pails while in the stable. 

The Cow. — She should be kept scrupulously clean, and 
her udder and teats should be washed before milking. All 
milch cows should be curried. 

The Milker. — The person who milks should wear clean 
clothes and have clean dry hands. The hands should never 
be put in the milk. 

The Utensils. — Porcelain or smooth tin pails without 
open seams are best. These should be scalded after every 
milking and allowed to stand in the sun and air. The 
churn should be scalded also, as well as the parts of a sep- 
arator, and all bottles. 

Keeping. — Milk should be removed from the stable as 
soon as possible and chilled. Low temperatures are un- 
favorable to bacteria. The milk should be kept where it 
will not be possible for it to absorb any unpleasant odors, 
as it is inclined to do. 

Souring. — Very minute plants, called bacteria, find in 
milk a fertile field for development. In their growth they 
change the milk sugar to lactic acid, which "sours" the 
milk and curdles it. This may be prevented by extreme 
cleanliness and low temperature which does not favor 
the growth of bacteria. 

Pasteurization. — Milk may be kept longer by heating 
it for twenty minutes at a temperature of 160° F. and 
then cooling it rapidly. This process is called Pasteuriza- 
tion. It destroys any bacteria that may be present. In 
many cities there is a law that milk must be so treated. 
When milk is heated above 180° F., as at that temperature 
there is extra certainty that the bacteria will all be killed, 
it is said to be "sterilized." 

Sanitary plants, to produce absolutely pure milk, take 
all these precautions. 



214 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

Questions: 

1. A pound of milk is said to possess practically as much nourish- 
ment as a pound of beefsteak. Which is cheaper? 

2. How many pounds or gallons of milk are your cows or others 
in your community giving per day? Per year? Is it more or less than 
the average? 

3. When all things are considered, does it cost more to keep a 
good cow than a poor one? 

4. Why is it that milk is so perfect a food? 

5. Why is it important to be so particular in the care of milk? 
Arithmetic: 

1. If butter-fat is worth 28c. per pound, what was the value of 
the butter-fat produced in one year by the World's Champion Cow? 

2. If the cow that gives 362 gallons of milk a year produced 
4.14% of butter-fat, what is the value of her butter-fat compared with 
the champion? 

3. If patrons will pay Ic. a quart extra for good clean milk, how 
much extra might be received from the champion's 3,644 gallons? 

TESTING MILK 

Babcock Test. — The Babcock Test is one of the great 
inventions of the age, and has done a great deal for the 
dairy industry. Before this invention there was no way 
to tell the different grades of milk. It was known that 
some cows gave richer milk than others, but the only way 
to tell the amount of butter-fat in a given sample was to 
raise the cream and make it into butter. When all the 
butter was made on the home farms, it was not so necessary 
to know the quality of milk; but when creameries became 
common, and milk was sold, it became important to know 
how much butter-fat each sample contained, so that it could 
be paid for in proportion to its value. 

Dr. Babcock realized this need, and, after years of effort, 
invented a test by which any sample of milk may be tested 
in a very short time and its per cent of butter-fat determined. 
Thus it is possible for every farmer, who hauls milk to a 
creamery, to be paid for it in exact proportion to the amount 
of butter-fat it contains. 

Principle of the Test. — This test is very simple, and 
makes use of a few facts that everyone knew before the 
test was invented. It was known that, if milk were set 
away for several hours, cream would rise to the top. This 
fact indicated that cream is lighter than the other parts 
of the milk. Every boy who has ever turned a grindstone 



DAIRYING 215 

knows that, if water is poured on a grindstone, and the 
stone turned rapidly, the water is thrown off. This indi- 
cates that anything revolving has a tendency to be forced 
away from the point around which it is revolving. 

Dr. Babcock made use of these two principles by de- 
vising a machine in which bottles can be set and revolved 
rapidly. To make the test, a certain amount of milk is 
put in a test bottle and some sulphuric acid added. The 
acid assists in breaking down the milk, and makes it easier 
for the fat to be separated from it. The test bottles are 
put in the machine, which is then turned at a given speed. 
The cups in which the bottles are set swing outward, as the 
speed increases, until the bottles are in a horizontal posi- 
tion, with the bottoms the farthest away from the center, 
around which they are revolving. This rapid revolving 
tends to force all the milk into the bottom of the bottle, 
just as turning the grindstone tends to throw water away 
from it. Milk, being heavier than cream, is crowded with 
more force into the bottom of the bottles, and the fat rises 
into the necks. The acid added to the milk causes it to 
turn dark, and the butter-fat is amber colored, so that 
the fat is easily distinguished from the milk. The necks 
of the bottles have scales on them, and as the cream is 
forced into them, one notices how many spaces are filled 
with fat. The number filled indicates the per cent of the 
fat in the milk. If three spaces are filled, the milk tests 
three per cent, and, if four and a half spaces are filled, the 
milk tests four and a half per cent. See page 352. 

Milk Test. — If we say milk tests five per cent fat, we 
mean that in one hundred pounds of milk there are five 
pounds of butter-fat. One hundred pounds of six per cent 
milk is worth twice as much at the creamery as one hundred 
pounds of three per cent milk. 

At every creamery this test is used, and when a farmer 
brings milk to the creamery, the butter maker weighs it, 
takes a sample and tests it. The total weight multiplied 
by the test of the milk and divided by one hundred, gives 
the pounds of fat and affords the basis on which the milk 
is paid for. Thus, if a farmer delivers one hundred and 
seventy-five pounds of milk, and it tests four per cent, the 



216 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

problem is solved as follows: .04 x 175 lbs. = 7, the number 
of pounds of fat. 

Cream is not pure butter-fat; so it must be tested also. 

Questions: 

1. Why was some device for testing milk badly needed? 

2. Who invented such a device? 

3. Upon what principles does it work? 

4. If you have seen testing done at the creamery, describe it 
as best you can. 

5. What is meant by per cent of fat in milk? 
Arithmetic: 

1. A hauls 230 lbs. of milk to the creamery. It tests 3.5% fat. 
How many pounds of butter-fat does it contain? How much is the 
butter-fat worth at 34c. per lb. 

2. B hauls 150 lbs. of milk to the creamery. It tests 4.5% fat. 
How many pounds of fat does it contain? How much is the fat worth 
at 34c. per lb.? 

3. C delivers 75 lbs. of cream to the creamery. It tests 24% 
fat. How many pounds fat has he? What is it worth at 34c. per lb.? 

TESTING COWS 

Culling. — Now that dairying is getting to be such an 
important part of farming, farmers are studying how they 
may secure greater profits. They have found that, if they 
are to realize satisfactory returns on dairying, they must 
keep only cows that are capable of producing large amounts 
of milk and butter-fat. They have found also that the only 
way to know j ust what each cow is doing is to weigh the milk. 
At first this work seemed unnecessary, but now nearly every 
good dairyman tests his cows and finds that it pays him to 
do so, because it takes less time than to milk one or two 
unprofitable ones. 

Weighing Milk. — This is very simple, if one has a spring 
balance hung in the barn near the milk can, and a sheet 
of paper with a column for each cow, tacked up nearby so 
that the results can be jotted down as the milk is weighed. 
It is not necessary to weigh the milk every day. Weighing 
it night and morning, once every ten days, or even once a 
month, makes it possible to determine quite accurately the 
amount of milk a cow has given for the month. 

Advantages of Weighing Milk Every Day. — There are a 
great many advantages, though, in weighing milk every 
day. By so doing one knows accurately how much milk a 



DAIRYING 



217 



COW has given during the month. It also enables one to 
tell at once whether a cow gives less than her usual flow of 
milk. If a cow has been giving fifteen pounds of milk, and 
suddenly drops to thirteen pounds, one's attention is called 
to the fact at once and the cause can be sought. It may be 
found that the cow got out of the yard and that the dog 

was set on her; that she 
was left out in the cold 
too long; that she was 
turned out to drink when 
the wind was so cold and 
the water so nearly froz- 
en, that she did not get 
the amount of water she 
needed, or that a win- 
dow or door was left 
open and the cold 
draught chilled her. 
Whatever the cause of 
the loss in milk may be, 
if attention is called to 
it, the cause and the 
remedy may both be 
found. 

Sampling. — A sample 
to be tested for the per 
cent of fat should be tak- 
en just as the milk is 
being weighed. Stir the 
milk in the pail to make 
sure that it is all uniform ; 
then take a small sample in a bottle. Each sample may be 
tested soon after being taken, or a simpler way is to take sev- 
eral samples from the same cow and keep them in one bottle, 
and test all together. In this way of testing, some pre- 
servative must be added to keep the samples from spoiling. 
Testing. — =Any careful boy, twelve or more years old, 
can test milk, if he has a tester and is shown how, or, if the 
milk is weighed at home and samples taken, the creamery 
man will, as a rule, test them for a very small charge or for 




Figure 93. — Scales and convenient case for 
weighing and sampling milk. 



218 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



nothing. At one place the farmers pay three cents a sample 
for testing. If one has a sample tested each month from a 
cow, it would cost but thirty-six cents per year, and this 
would certainly be a paying investment. In some places 
the farmers form a cow-testing association and hire a man 
to test all the cows. He comes to each farm once a month, 




Figure 94. — A pure-bred Holsteiu cow. She gave in 30 days Hi. 9 pounds of butter. 

and weighs and tests the milk from each cow night and 
morning, then goes to the next farmer. This is a very 
satisfactory arrangement. 
Questions: 

1. Why is it wise to weigh and test the milk from each cow? 

2. What are the advantages in weighing the milk from each cow 
at each milking? 

.3. Tell how you would take a sample of milk for testing? 



DAIRYING 



219 



Arithmetic: 

1. A cow gives an average of 20 lbs. of milk per day for 300 
days each year. What is her yearly milk production? 

2. A cow gives 6,000 lbs. of milk in a year, testing 4% fat. How 
many pounds of butter-fat does she give? How much is the butter-fat 
worth at 30c. per pound? 

3. A cow gives 6,000 lbs. of milk in a year, testing 5% fat. How 
many pounds of butter-fat does she give? How much is the butter- 
fat worth at 30c. per pound? 









^I |_ 


! ;- 

k 


V 



Figure 94a. — Outfit for making the Babcock teat. From left to right, an eight 
bottle tester; a graduate for measuring acid; a test bottle; compasses for measur- 
ing fat in neck of bottle; a pipette for measuring milk, and a sample bottle. 

Exercises: 

1. Weigh the milk separately of two or more cows for a month. 
Test it at home or at school or have it tested at the creamery. Record 
how much milk each cow gives and the per cent of butter-fat. Compare 
the records of different cows. 

2. Keep a record of the feed given to one or more dairy cows 
for a month. What is it worth at current prices? What else did the 
cow or cows cost? Compare costs with value of milk and products 
obtained. 

3. Observe how careful or negligent farmers may be in handling 
milk. 



CHAPTER XVII 



SHEEP 

TYPES AND BREEDS 

Types. — Sheep are kept for mutton and wool produc- 
tion. Some breeds are specially adapted to the production 
of wool and do not produce the best quality of mutton. 
Other breeds are well adapted to the production of mutton, 
but are not so well adapted to wool production. There are 
two common ways of classifying sheep, one, on the basis 
of wool, as fine wool, medium wool and long wool. The 
other, as fine wool and mutton. By the last classification 

the mutton breeds include 
the medium wool and 
long wool breeds. 

Fine wool breeds have 
been bred chiefly for wool 
production. The wool on 
these breeds is compara- 
tively short, thick and 
very fine, and very oily, 
so that a great deal of 
dirt sticks to it. Their 
bodies are thin and irreg- 
ular and their skins are 
very much wrinkled. 
These breeds are smaller 
generally than the mut- 
ton breeds. They have 
white faces and the males 
have horns and the ewes 
are hornless. American and Delaine Merinos are the most 
important breeds in this class. They were brought to 
America from Spain more than a hundred years ago. They 
have been generally recognized as American breeds. 
The American Merino is very much wrinkled. The Delaine 
Merino is wrinkled, but not so much as the former. Ram- 




Figure 95. — A Rauibouillet, a fine wool type. 



SHEEP 



221 



bouillet, the other fine wool breed, originated in France. 
It is larger than the Merino, has a Httle better mutton 
carcass, is generally wrinkled very little and only at the neck. 
Medium wool breeds have been bred chiefly for mutton, 
hence have very compact bodies, well covered with flesh. 
They produce good fleeces, but not as heavy or as fine as 
the fine wool breeds. The breeds of sheep in this class are 




P'igure 96. — A Sliropshire, a medium wool type. 

by far the most common in America. Five of the important 
breeds in this class are Shropshire, Southdown, Oxford, 
Hampshire and Suffolk. These are all English breeds, with 
good carcasses. Thej^ always have brown or black faces 
and legs and no horns. Other breeds in this class are Cheviot 
and Dorset. These breeds have white faces, the Dorset 
has horns — both males and females. The Dorset is an 
English breed. The Cheviot comes from Scotland. 

Coarse wool breeds have also been bred chiefly for mut- 
ton. They are large breeds of sheep, taller than the Shrop- 
shire, and with much longer, coarser wool. These breeds 



222 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



have good mutton carcasses and no horns. The Leicester, 
Cotswold and Lincoln are Enghsh breeds with white faces. 
The Blackfaced Highland is a Scotch breed. 




Figure 97. — A Cotswold, a coarse wool type. 

Questions: 

1. Tell how breeds of sheep are classified as to purposes for 
which they are kept? As to the kind of wool? 

2. What breed of sheep is most common in your neighborhood? 
Describe this breed and show how it differs from other breeds. 

3. Name the breeds of sheep that have horns? In which breed 
do both males and females have horns? 

Arithmetic: 

1. What is the value of a fleece of wool weighing 73^ lbs., when 
wool is 23c. per pound? 

2. What is the value of 17 lambs weighing 84 lbs. each, at 7c. per 
pound? 

3. If a farmer with 50 ewes can get 73^ lbs. of wool from each, 
and can raise 40 84-lb. lambs, what will be his total income from his 
sheep, if he sells the wool at 23c. per lb. and the lambs at 7c. per lb.? 



SHEEP 223 

CARE AND MANAGEMENT 

Care and management have quite as much to do with 
successful sheep husbandry as with the successful man- 
agement of any kind of live stock. While sheep may be 
able to live with less attention and shelter than are required 
by other classes of live stock, they will not prove profitable 
unless made comfortable and given attention when needed. 

During the winter the flock on the average farm con- 
sists chiefly of ewes kept over winter with the expectation 
that they will have lambs in the spring. 

Winter Care of Breeding Ewes. — Ewes kept on good 
pasture during the summer and fall, are usually in good 
flesh by the time they are put in winter quarters. Dur- 
ing the winter they need food enough to maintain their 
bodies, to provide for the growth of wool and to supply 
the energy needed for what little exercise they take about 
the sheds and yards. They do not need to be fed as heavily 
in proportion to their weight as cows that are giving milk, 
horses that are working, or cattle, sheep or hogs that are 
being fattened. 

It is unwise to feed ewes any ration that will tend to fat- 
ten them. They should be fed succulent and muscle-form- 
ing foods, as clover hay, corn fodder, roots; and, if fed any 
grain, it should be a kind rich in protein, as bran, oats, etc. 

To feed sheep properly is as much of a problem as to 
feed other kinds of stock. If sheep are not well nourished, 
they will lose some of their wool, and be weak and poor in 
the spring. If breeding ewes are fed too much, the lambs 
are likely to come weak in the spring; besides, there is an 
unnecessary waste of feed. 

Require Little Labor. — Most of our farms need more 
stock than is at present kept on them. Farm labor is so 
scarce that it seems unwise, on the average farm, to increase 
the number of cows kept beyond what can be cared for, 
if necessary by the family. Sheep require comparatively 
little labor, except for a short time during the lambing 
season. Five to seven ewes will bring in about as much 
income in a year as a cow, and less labor is required to care 
for them. In view of these facts, the live stock of the farm 



224 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



may often be more easily and more profitably increased by 
putting on a flock of from twenty to seventy ewes than by 
adding from three to ten cows to the herd. 

Shelter. — Sheep are so well protected by their wool that 
they need very little or no protection from the cold. They 
should, however, be kept dry and have a place, that is free 
from draughts, in which to lie down. A single board or 




Figure 98. — Shearing sheep by macliinery. 

stray/ shed, closed tight on three sides, but with the other 
side partly open so that the sheep may run out and in at 
will, is a very satisfactory place in which to keep sheep. 
If lambs come during the cold weather, warm quarters must 
be provided. 

Fencing for Sheep. — One of the objectionable features 
of keeping sheep on the average farm is the difficulty of 
fencing them in. A fence that can be built for 20 cents to 
25 cents per rod is satisfactory for cattle. A much closer 
fence, as a woven wire fence or a narrow ribbon of woven 
wire with one or more barbed wires above, is needed for 
sheep. Such a fence costs 45 to 60 cents per rod. As farms 



SHEEP 225 

are more intensively worked, however, more and better 
fences will be used, and then there will be no difficulty in 
keeping sheep. 

Sheep for Fattening. — A number of farmers, who have not 
the necessary fencing so they can raise sheep to advantage, 
have gotten some of the benefits of having sheep on their 
farms by buying at about harvest time a carload of lambs, 
or as many as they can keep to advantage, and allowing 
them to graze over their stubble and cornfields during the 
fall. Such sheep are in fine condition to fatten during the 
winter on bundle corn or other cheap feed. Farmers may 
thus produce several pounds of mutton on each acre of land, 
after it has produced a crop; make their land cleaner and 
richer; and feed on the farm, at a profit, products otherwise 
of little or no value. 
Questions: 

1. What winter care do breeding ewes require? 

2. Compare the shelter needed for sheep with the shelter needed 
for dairy cows. 

3. What can you say about fencing for sheep? 

4. Why do sheep require less labor than other stock? 
Arithmetic: 

1. A farmer buys 50 sheep at $4.50 each. How much do they 
cost him? 

2. When shorn, the 50 sheep average 7J^ lbs. of wool each. How 
many pounds of wool will the farmer have? How much is it worth at 
24c. per pound? How much is the wool worth per sheep? 

3. From the 50 sheep the farmer raises 45 lambs worth $4.00 each. 
How much are the lambs worth? What is the average income for lambs 
from each of the 50 sheep? 

FEEDING 
Cheaply Raised. — Sheep can eat and thrive on a diet 
constituted principally of roughage. In this respect they 
are like cattle; but very different from hogs whose ration 
must be largely grain, because they have comparatively 
small stomachs. It is well to feed at least some of the 
grain produced on a farm for the sake of preserving its 
fertility; but there is always more or less roughage, as 
straw, cornstalks, hay, weeds and scattered grain. This 
coarse stuff is not suitable for dairy cows, although beef 
cattle can use such feed; but sheep are more likely to return 
a profit on such feed than beef cattle. 



226 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



Sheep produce two crops a year, a crop of wool and a 
crop of lambs. Often the wool will pay for a year's feed. 
The lambs will then be clear, and a lamb is ready for market 
in from six months to a year, while a calf is not profitable 
for two or three years. 

Rations for Breeding Ewes. — Some sheep feeding work 
done by the Animal Husbandry Division of the Miimesota 




Figure 99. — A good flock of breeding ewes gleaning in a stubble field. They will 
pick up all heads of scattered grain, as well as destroy many troublesome weeds. 

Experiment Station, shows that with the common and cheap 
farm feeds, breeding ewes may be wintered with excellent 
results and very cheaply. 

The rations given below show the amount of the dif- 
ferent feeds per day per 100 lbs. live weight of sheep. 
Ration No. I 
3.7 lbs. of fodder corn, in which there were a few nubbins of corn. 

Ration No. n 
3.7 lbs. of second crop clover hay. 

Ration No. Ill 
1.5 lbs. of second crop clover hay, .1 lb. of corn fodder, and .3 
lb. of oats and corn, equal parts. 



SHEEP 227 

Ration No. IV 

1.8 lbs. of second crop clover hay, 1.5 lbs. of roots, and .3 lb. of 
shelled corn. 

Ration No. V 

2.6 lbs. of fodder corn, 1.5 lbs. of roots, and .3 lb. of oats and shelled 
corn, equal parts. 

Ration No. VI 

2 lbs. of oat straw, 1.6 lbs. of roots, .6 lb. of bran and oats, equal 
parts. 

How to Feed Above Rations. — A glance at the above 
rations gives one an idea that it would be impractical to 
weigh out feed so carefully to each sheep; which conclusion 
of course, is true. To feed any of the above rations, one 
would simply need to know the number of ewes to be fed, 
and their approximate weight. (The average ewe will weigh 
between 125 and 150 lbs.) If one had 40 ewes weighing 140 
lbs. each, he would have 5,600 lbs. of sheep. If each 100 
lbs. of sheep required 3.7 lbs. of clover hay, his flock would 
require 56x3.7 lbs. or 207.2 lbs. of clover hay per day; and 
about one half of this amount would be scattered in the 
feeding racks each morning, the balance in the evening. 

If one will weigh a few forkfuls of hay occasionally, 
he can tell very closely, without weighing every time he 
feeds, about how much hay is fed each time. 

If one is to feed a mixture of corn and oats, equal parts, 
he would simply mix together one or more hundred pounds 
of each ; then, by weighing a few measuref uls of the mixture, 
he can tell approximately the right amount of grain to feed 
to his flock without weighing the grain each time he feeds. 
Questions: 

1. Why do breeding ewes require food during the winter? 

2. What are the results of overfeeding breeding ewes? Of un- 
derfeeding? 

3. How would you proceed to feed a flock of ewes appro.\imately 
the right amount of feed? 

Arithmetic: 

1. How much will it cost to feed a 140-lb. ewe 200 days, 
on ration No. I, if fodder corn is worth $5.00 per ton? 

2. How much will it cost to feed a 140-lb. ewe 200 days on ration 
No. IV, if clover hay is worth S5.00 per ton, roots $2.00 per ton, and 
com and oats $20.00 per ton? 

3. How much will it cost to feed a 140-lb. ewe 200 days, on ration 
No. VI, if straw is worth nothing, roots are worth $2.00 per ton, and 
oats and bran are worth $24.00 per ton? 



228 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

Exercises: 

1. List the different breeds of sheep raised in the community. 
State, if you can find out, for what particular purpose each breed is 
raised and why it is preferred. 

2. Ascertain how much wool was shipped from your station 
last season. What was it worth? How much does your state produce? 

3. Name all the profitable advantages of sheep and sheep raising 
that you can. Compare points with other animals. 

4. Describe the various ways in which sheep and their products 
are of use to man. 

5. At present prices which would be more profitable, all things 
considered, to sell the wethers for mutton or to keen them for the wool 
they produce? 



CHAPTER XVIII 



SWINE 

TYPES AND BREEDS 

Types. — Swine are bred entirely for pork, consequently 
there is not so much difference in breeds of hogs as in breeds 
of other stock. There are two general types of hogs, namely, 
lard hogs and bacon hogs. 

Lard hogs are by far the most common in America. 
They have short legs, comparatively short broad backs 
and heavy hams and shoulders. They have been bred and 
fed to mature early and fatten easily. The most common 
breeds of lard hogs are Poland China, Berkshire, Duroc- 

Jersey, Chester 
White and Small 
Yorkshire. Other 
breeds in this class 
are Hampshire, 
Essex and Suffolk. 
Poland C hina is an 
American breed, 
black in color with 
six white points, 
a white spot in 
the face, white on 
the end of the tail 
and four white 
feet. The ears droop. Berkshires are an English breed. 
They are black and have the six white points the same 
as the Poland China. Their ears stand erect or point 
outward. They are not quite so wide and have a Httle 
longer legs than Poland Chinas. Duroc- Jerseys were 
developed in the United States. They are very much like 
the Poland China in every way except that they are red 
in color. Chester White is another United States 
breed. They are larger than the Poland Chinas. In 
form they are quite like the Poland Chinas, but are white 




Figure 100. — Berkshire hog, a lard type. 



230 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



in color. Small Yorkshires originated in England. This 
is one of the smallest breeds of hogs. They are white in 
color and have very short heads with a face very much 
dished, that is, the nose has the appearance of being broken 
and turned up. The ears stand erect. The Hampshire is 
an American breed, black with a white belt about the body. 
Sometimes it is classed as an intermediate breed. Essex is 
a small black Enghsh breed. 

Intermediate Breeds. — There are three breeds that can 
hardly be classed as either lard or bacon in type. They 
are partly both. They are all white, and medium in size. 




Figure 101. — Improved Yorkshire hogs, a bacon type. 

The Cheshire is a United States breed, with ears erect. The 
Victoria is a United States breed, with ears drooping. 
The Middle Yorkshire is an English breed; with ears erect 
and face slightly dished. 

Bacon breeds are large, long hogs, with very deep bodies, 
long legs and long heads. They are not so broad as the lard 
hogs and the hams and shoulders are hghter. These breeds 
have a tendency to mix more lean with the fat than the 
lard hogs. Bacon with nice strips of lean running through 
it is to be desired. There are but two breeds in this group, 
the Yorkshire and the Tam worth. These are both English 
breeds. The Yorkshire is white, with dished face and erect 
ears. The Tam worth is red, with a very long nose and 
ears erect. 



SWINE 231 

Questions: 

1. What are the chief differences between bacon and lard hogs? 

2. Describe four important breeds of lard hogs. 

3. What breed is most commonly raised in your community? 
Describe this breed fully? 

Arithmetic: 

1. If a farmer raises 60 hogs that weigh 225 lbs. each, and sells 
them at 7Hc- per lb., how much money wiU he get? 

2. A farmer turns 8 50-lb. pigs into an acre of clover pasture 
and leaves them 70 days. In the meantime he feeds them 1,000 lbs. 
of shorts, worth $25 per ton. At the end of the period each pig weighs 
100 lbs. How many pounds did the pigs gain? How much is the 
amount they gained worth at 73^c. per pound? How much did the 
farmer make, after paying for the shorts? 

CARE AND MANAGEMENT 

THE SWINE INDUSTRY 

Profitable Meat Production. — Hogs are kept on nearly 
every farm, but only a small proportion of farmers raise 
enough hogs to make pork production an important factor 
in the income of the farm. Pork production is, however, 
a very important enterprise on many farms, and has in many 
cases proved profitable; in fact more profitable than any 
other kind of meat production. 

Advantage of Hog Raising.^ — Some advantages of pork 
production over that of other kinds of meat are: 

(a) A brood sow may produce from four to twenty 
pigs in a year. On this account the cost of a pig at birth 
is less in proportion than the cost of a calf or a lamb. 

(b) The fact that hogs have large litters, reach maturity 
quickly and do not require expensive shelter, enables one to 
get started in raising hogs more quickly and with less expense 
than is required to start with other kinds of live stock. 

(c) Less labor is required to care for hogs than to care 
for enough cattle to bring in the same amount of money. 

(d) They consume and convert into valuable products 
the wastes and slops of the farm. 

Disadvantages of Hog Raising. — The main disadvan- 
tages of hog raising are: 

(a) Hogs are not able to use the coarse roughage, 
as corn stover and straw, that is usually found on the farm; 
hence cannot convert these products into salable form as 
can sheep and cattle. 



232 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



(b) Their chief feed must be grain, at least for fatten- 
ing, and grain feed is more expensive than roughage. 

(c) They are more hkely to be taken off in large num- 
bers by disease than are the other classes of hve stock. 

Possibilities. — Hogs have probably been the means of 
paying off more mortgages than has any other class of stock. 
A young man wishing to make a start on the farm can well 
afford to give careful attention to hogs and their possibilities 
of producing a profit. 




Figure 102. — Some good porkera. 

A good brood sow should have from six to ten pigs at 
a litter, and, if desired, may have two litters a year. Pigs, 
when eight months old, should weigh 200 lbs., or more. If 
a sow produces fourteen pigs in a year, and each pig when 
eight months old weighs 200 lbs., she would produce 2,800 
pounds of pork in a year, which at 5c. per pound would be 
worth $140. 

Hog Cholera. — The most dangerous disease of hogs is 
hog cholera, and it has caused the loss of millions of dollars' 
worth of hogs in the United States. Veterinarians have 
now discovered a method by which it is possible to vaccinate 
hogs and prevent their having cholera. They vaccinate 
in much the same manner as people are vaccinated to make 
them immune to small-pox. Vaccination is quite expensive 
and proper facilities are not always available; so it is well to 
take every precaution to prevent the disease. 

Hog cholera is a contagious disease. That is, hogs are 
very likely to take the diseaseif they come in contact with 



SWINE 233 

other hogs that are infected with it. The germs may be 
carried from one pen to another, or from one farm to an- 
other, on one's clothes, by dogs, by running water or by any 
other method by which particles of dust or disease germs 
might be carried about. 

Preventive Measures. — If hogs are kept in clean, health- 
ful quarters, given plenty of exercise, and fed, except when 
fattening, enough muscle-forming food, as clover pasture, 
clover hay, milk, shorts, etc., to keep them in good, vigor- 
ous condition, they will be better able to resist the disease 
than if they are kept in less thrifty condition. If cholera 
breaks out in the community, one should use every pre- 
caution to prevent the germs from being brought on the 
farm; and, if it gets very close, it is well to dispose of all 
the hogs that are well and fit to sell. Chances of loss may 
be greatly reduced by separating the hogs. 
Questions: 

1. What are some of the advantages of pork production over 
the production of other classes of meat? What are some of the dis- 
advantages? 

2. What can you say of the possibiUties of pork production? 

3. Tell all you can about hog cholera. 
Arithmetic: 

1 . What is the value of a hog weighing 225 lbs. at 5 3^c. per pound? 

2. A sow has 7 pigs in a litter. When 8 months old the pigs weigh 
200 lbs. each. What is the weight of all? How much are they worth 
at 5J^c. per pound? 

3. If a bushel of corn will produce 10 lbs. of pork, how much 
will the feed for the production of a pound of pork cost, if corn is worth 
35c. per bushel? 

THE BROOD SOW AND PIGS 

The brood sow and her care and feed determine the 
cost of pigs at birth. In the first place a sow of good type, 
and of the breed desired, should be selected. If several 
litters of pigs are raised, it is well to have some method of 
marking the young pigs, so that when they are grown one 
can tell from which litter they came. It is desirable to have 
brood sows that will have large litters of pigs; and if one 
selects brood sows from a large litter one is more hkely to 
get a good number of pigs from each sow than if sows were 
selected from a bunch of hogs without regard to whether 
they came from large litters or not. 



234 



ELEMENT OF FARM PRACTICE 



If one does not mark the pigs at birth, young sows may 
be selected from small litters, because the sows with small 
litters feed their pigs a Uttle better, and as a consequence 
the pigs are usually a little fatter and better looking than 
the pigs from large litters. 

Care of the Brood Sows. — The brood sow should have 
plenty of succulent and muscle-forming feed, but should 




Figure 103. — A sow with a large litter. An essential of cheap pork production is a 
low cost of pigs at birth. 

not be overfed. She should have at all times plenty of 
exercise. It is a mistake to allow brood sows to run during 
the fall with the hogs that are being fattened. It is a waste 
of feed, and the sows are injured if allowed to get too fat. 
During the fall the brood sows should have the run of a 
good pasture, with only enough grain to keep them in good 
thrifty condition. 

Shelter.^ — If only one litter of pigs is to be raised from 
each sow each year, it is well to have them come as early 
in the spring as the weather is warm. Then no expensive 
shelter is needed. A small cot (movable house) well banked, 
or a straw shed, is ample for the sow during the winter 
and in summer all that is needed is shelter to keep the pigs 
dry and to protect them from the sun. If cots are used 
they may be moved to the pasture for summer shelter. 
Hogs need shade in summer. 



SWINE 



235 



If one is going to raise two litters of pigs from a brood 
sow in a year, good warm quarters must be provided. 
These quarters need not be expensive, but they should be 

convenient and 
comfortable. 

Requirements 
for Pigs. -—The 
first requirement 
of young pigs is 
that they have a 
clean, dry, com- 
fortable bed in 
which to arrive. 
As the mother is 
naturally in a 
feverish condition 
at this time, she 
may be somewhat 
careless and he on 
the little pigs. To 
prevent this, a 




Figure 104. — Hog cot, a cheap and portable shelter. 



shelf ten or twelve inches wide and eight or ten inches 
from the floor should be built around the pen, so as to 
make room for the pigs to get out of the way of their 
mother. This is a very simple precaution, and may save a 
number of pigs. 

A Creep. — To feed the small pigs so that the sow cannot 
bother them, have a small yard or pen fenced off in the place 
in which the sow is kept, with the fence raised high enough 
from the ground so that the little pigs can pass back and 
forth easily, but low enough to kQ.ep out the old sow. In 
this place plenty of trough room should be provided, so 
that every pig has a chance to eat. Otherwise, the larger, 
stronger pigs will get most of the feed and the smaller 
ones will not get enough. 

Weaning Pigs. — If but one litter of pigs is raised per 
year, they may be allowed to run with their mother until 
from twelve to sixteen weeks old, or even longer, until 
the sow begins to wean the pigs herself. If the young pigs 
are given a chance to learn to eat as suggested above, they 



236 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

may be weaned with very little difficulty at any time after 
they are six weeks old. If the sow is doing well, it is usually 
better to leave the pigs with her until they are about twelve 
weeks old. 

Comfort. — In fattening any kind of stock, comfort is an 
important factor, and one who overlooks it is a loser there- 
by. If hogs are fed in the field, a good soft and dry bed 
should be provided for them or they will not do their best, 
and they should always have a supply of fresh water. The 
same is true if they are kept in the yard. Some feeders 
claim, and with good reason too, that an armful of straw 
may often be as valuable to a bunch of hogs as a bushel 
of corn. 

Fencing is the most expensive part of furnishing pas- 
ture for hogs, but as a rule it is cheaper than the labor of 
caring for and carrying feed to the hogs would be. The 
cost of fencing may be reduced by having comparatively 
large, well-shaped fields, and by planning for them a rota- 
tion that will furnish the maximum amount of feed. A 
four-year rotation, of (1) grain, (2) clover, (3) and (4) 
corn, on four fenced fields of uniform size, is very satis- 
factory. One of the four fields would be in grain, one in 
clover and two in corn, each year; the clover and the two 
corn crops to be fed off by the hogs. 

Arrangement of Fields. — Four fields adjoining the farm- 
stead, each 14 acre to one acre in size, for each brood sow 
kept on the farm, make it possible to produce both summer 
and fall feed for hogs very cheaply. Each year one field 
would be sown to grain and red clover seed, and another 
field would be in pasture, and the other two in corn. Such 
rotation once estabhshed would supply abundance of cheap 
feed with the least labor. 
Questions: 

1. What are some of the points worth considering in the selection 
of a brood sow? 

2. What can you say concerning the care and shelter of brood 
sows? 

3. How may young pigs be fed so they will not be bothered by 
their mother? 

4. What is the best kind of summer feed for hogs, and how 
supplied? 

5. In what way can the cost of fencing for hogs be reduced? 



SWINE 



237 



Arithmetic: 

1. If H acre of clover pasture is required for a sow and eight 
pigs, how many acres are required for six sows with htters? 

2. How many acres of land in a field 20 rods by 24 rods in size? 
How many rods of fencing are required to enclose it? How many rods 
of fencing per acre? What would the fencing cost per acre at 50c. per 
rod of fencing? 

3. If it costs $15.00 per acre to fence a field, what is the annual 
cost of the fence, if it lasts ten years and interest is charged at the 
rate of 4%? (Ans.: 1-10 of $15.00 and interest on $15.00.) 

FEEDING 

FATTENING HOGS ECONOMICALLY 

To fatten hogs it is simply necessary to supply them with 
plenty of food, as they usually have a good appetite and are 




Figure 105. — Hogs helping themaelvea to the corn crop. 

not easily injured by overfeeding. It is wise, however, to 
change their feed to another gradually, that is, where they 
are being fed all they will take. 

The majority of hogs are fattened in the fall and early 
winter; and on that account we will suggest some of the 
better methods practiced in fall fattening. 

Labor. — A very common practice followed in fattening 
hogs is to shut them up in a small yard and feed them 
generously. This practice, however, is no longer regarded 
as desirable. The animals are not kept in the most rugged 



238 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

condition by being confined too closely; they are more 
likely to become diseased, and a great deal of labor is neces- 
sary to feed and care for them when closely confined. Labor 
is one of the very important items in the cost of pork pro- 
duction, and every effort should be made to reduce the 
necessary labor to the minimum. 

Early Fall Feed. — During the early part of the fattening 
season considerable green and succulent feed can be fed to 
advantage. This feed is very easily supplied by raising a 
patch of pumpkins near the hog pasture, where the pump- 
kins can be easily thrown over the fence to the hogs. Plenty 
of good pasture is also desirable at this time, and it may be 
supplied in any way most convenient. 

Field Peas. — In the first part of the fattening period 
the pigs will make considerable growth; so some muscle- 
forming feed is desirable as a part of the ration, rather than 
an exclusive corn diet. A small field of field peas, so situ- 
ated that they may be harvested by the hogs when ripe by 
turning the hogs into the field, gives the hogs an excellent 
start at slight expenditure of labor. The peas are sown 
very early in the spring, at the rate of three bushels of seed 
per acre, and nothing more is done to them until the hogs 
are turned in. 

Com. — After the peas have been fed off, or as soon as 
the corn is ripe, if one has no peas, the hogs may be turned 
into a portion of the cornfield and allowed to help them- 
selves. If some green feed is provided by sowing rye or 
rape in the corn, at the time it was cultivated last, a large 
amount of green feed will be supplied at very smaU cost, 
and will be reUshed by the hogs along with the corn. 

It costs only about half as much to grow a crop of corn 
up to the time it is ripe, as to raise, cut, husk and feed it. 
In other words, it costs about $5.00 per acre to cut, shock 
and husk one acre of corn, and by allowing the hogs to har- 
vest the crop themselves this cost is saved. Of course 
the field must be fenced; but, if regular fields are provided 
near the house, on which to raise pasture, peas and corn 
for the hogs, and these fields are permanently fenced, the 
annual cost of fencing is not a very large item. 



SWINE 239 

Not all the corn raised would be fed ojff, for it is not 
well to have the hogs in the field after snow and cold \yeather 
come. Six or eight pigs five to seven months old will ordi- 
narily clean up an acre of average corn during the fall. 

Waste by Hogging Crops.— Allowing hogs to help theni- 
selves to a crop is called "hogging off the crop." This 
practice is generally regarded as very wasteful — that the 
hogs trample down and waste a great deal of the crop. 




Figure 106.— Hogs in rape, a good pasture crop. The seed is cheap and may be 

sown six to eight weeks before the pasture is needed. 

There is, however, very little of the crop wasted if the hogs 
are turned into a small patch (sufficient to last them two 
or three weeks) at a time. 

Results obtained by the different experiment stations, 
and by many practical farmers, show that an acre of corn 
will make fully as much and often more pork, where hogs 
help themselves, than where the corn is husked and fed to 
the hogs in a yard. 

At one of these experiment stations one lot of hogs 
was turned into a field of corn, and another similar lot 
was shut in a yard and fed husked corn. It was found 
that the hogs in the field required 7.35 lbs. of grain to make 
a pound of gain, while those in the yard required 8.59 lbs. 
of grain to make a pound of gain. 

Questions: 

1. In what ways may we reduce the amount of labor necessary 
in caring for fattening hogs? 

2. Of what use are field peas as a feed for hogs? 

3. What can you say regarding "hogging ofT corn"? 



240 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



Arithmetic: 

1. If it costs $1.25 to plow an acre of land, 50c. to harrow it 3 
times, 25c. to plant it, $1.60 to cultivate it 4 times, and 60c. to manure 
it, 25c. for seed, and $3.00 for rent, how much does it cost to raise an 
acre of corn? 

2. If it costs $7.50 to raise an acre of corn, and $2.00 annually 
to fence it, how much does it cost per acre? How much does the corn 
cost per bushel, if it yields 40 bushels per acre? 

3. If it requires 8 lbs. of ear corn to make one pound of pork, 
how many pounds of pork will 40 bus. of ear corn make? (72 lbs. per 
bu.) How much will the pork made from 40 bus. of corn be worth at 
5c. per lb.? 

FEEDING SOWS AND PIGS 

Feeding the Brood Sow. — It is very easy to overfeed 
a brood sow in winter. If she has raised two Utters of pigs 

during the year, so she is likely 
to be thin in the fall, she will 
need considerable feed until 
she begins to fatten up a lit- 
tle. If she has raised but one 
litter, which is the practice on 
most farms, she will have had 
the whole fall to fatten up, 
and very little grain is neces- 
sary or desirable during the 
winter. 

Bulky Feed. — If only one 
or two sows are kept, the slops 
from the house furnish an ex- 
cellent form of bulky feed, 
which helps to satisfy their 
appetites, but really contains 
little nutriment. If a large 
number of sows are kept, the 
slops from the house do not 
go very far, and one is likely 
to feed them more grain, to 
keep them from squealing, 
than they really need. If 
supplied with good clover hay, 
hogs will soon learn to eat it; 

''Tnd%i?Ja^s^ttmmeffi:d'S%'2 and this fumishcs the bulk 




SWINE 241 

they need and some nourishment, so that they do not 
need so much grain to satisfy them. Roots are an excel- 
lent form of feed for brood sows. As they are succulent, 
they aid in digestion, supply bulk and variety, and tone up 
the system. 

Suggested Rations. — The following grain mixtures have 
been fed to brood sows, in addition to clover hay, with very 
satisfactory results: 

1. Shorts 1 part, corn 3 parts (by weight). 

2. Oil cake, 1 part, corn 7 parts (by weight). 

About % lb. of either of these mixtures per day, per 100 
lbs. hve weight of hog, is sufficient, if enough laulky food, 
as hay or roots, is fed to satisfy the appetite. 

Mother's Milk for Young Pigs. — The very best feed for 
young pigs for the first few weeks is the dam's milk. If 
the sow has been well cared for previous to farrowing and 
is Uberally fed after farrowing, she will, if she is the right 
kind of a mother, give a liberal amount of milk. At two or 
three weeks of age the young pigs begin to develop a desire 
for something besides their mother's milk. Provision should 
be made to feed them some light but muscle-forming food, 
as skimmed milk with a little meal added. 

Clean Feed. — Only clean, wholesome feed should be 
fed to the small pigs, and the trough in which they are 
fed should be kept clean; because their digestion is easily 
deranged and a pig is valuable only when his digestion is 
good. No feed should be left in the trough from one feeding 
time to the next. Feed only what they can eat up clean. 

Keep Pigs Growing. — The aim in feeding young pigs 
should be to keep them growing every day; and, since their 
capacity to make use of feed determines their usefulness, 
it is well to so feed them as to strengthen and develop this 
capacity. Bulky feeds containing a good proportion of 
muscle-forming feed, as milk, milk and shorts, clover pasture, 
etc., are very good kinds of feed for young pigs. 

Summer Feed. — If but one fitter of pigs is raised per 
year, they should come in the spring and can be raised on 
pasture. Pasture furnishes the cheapest feed on the farm, 
and good feed too. Pigs are often kept in small pens and 
fed grain and slops. This practice is undesirable for several 



242 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

reasons. It is expensive both in labor and in feed. It does 
not provide the exercise necessary for the best development 
of growing pigs or breeding stock. Last, but not least, 
it is difficult to find any feed so well adapted to the growing 
pig as good clover pasture, supplemented with milk from the 
sow, skimmed milk and good, clean slops thickened with 
shorts or other muscle-forming feed. 

Pasture. — Red clover furnishes very cheap pasture, 
because the seed is sown with the preceding grain crop and 
no plowing or preparation of the land is necessary. Hogs 
relish young and succulent pasture; and as clover grows 
very rapidly during the early part of the summer, and the 
young pigs do not eat as much as they will later, the clover, 
if the pasture is large enough, usually gets ahead of them. 
It is well, then, to cut with a mower a small strip of the clover 
next to the pens, early in June. This part will start up soon 
and furnish the best kind of pasture. The rest may be cut 
for hay the latter part of June. The second crop will come 
on, and the hogs will be larger and need more feed than ear- 
lier, and will likely keep pace with the growing clover. 

Rape, rye, field peas or any other of the grain crops 
furnish good annual pasture for hogs, if for any reason 
one has not the clover. Blue grass and white clover, or 
bromus and white clover, make very good permanent 
pastures, if it seems undesirable to rotate the crops and thus 
supply clover pasture. 
Questions: 

1. Why is one likely to overfeed brood sows? 

2. In what way may the tendency to overfeed brood sows be 
overcome? 

3. How much grain does a brood sow need per day per 100 lbs. 
live weight? 

4. What are three important points in the feeding of httle pigs? 
Arithmetic: 

1. If a sow weighs 350 lbs. and requires % lb. of grain per day 
per 100 lbs. live weight, how much grain should she receive per day? 

2. If it costs llO per year to keep a brood sow, what is the aver- 
age cost per pig at birth, if she raises five pigs? If she raises eight pigs? 

3. If 100 lbs. of shorts worth $20 per ton and 300 lbs. of corn 
worth 42c. per bushel (56 lbs.) are mixed together, how many pounds 
of feed will there be in the mixture? What is the average price per 
pound? If a 400-lb. sow is fed fi lb. of the mixture per 100 lbs. hve 
weight, how much will her grain ration cost per day? 



SWINE 243 

Exercises: 

1. List the hogs found in your community under the heads of 
lard type and bacon type. Which class predominates? 

2. Try to procure an estimate of the loss in your school district 
from hog cholera during the last year. What preventive measures 
are the farmers employing? 

3. Ascertain the local practice in regard to "hogging off" corn, 
in regard to pasturing hogs, and what other green feeds may be fed. 

4. Select some small pig and weigh it every week or month for 
several months. Keep a careful record of its increase in weight. Is 
it uniform? 

5. It is said that in the packing houses every part of the pig, 
except the squeal is utilized. Can you tell what the various products 
are? 



CHAPTER XIX 

POULTRY, BIRDS AND BEES 

POULTRY ON THE FARM 

Importance of Poultry Industry. — Many persons believe 
that raising poultry is a small business, hardly worthy of 
a man's time, and that a few chickens are good simply as a 




Figure 108. — A neat flock of Barred Plymouth Rocks. 

pastime for those who live in town, or as a source of pin 
money for women on farms. 

It is true that the greater part of the poultry raised is 
raised in just this way; but, in spite of this fact, poultry 
brings to the farms of the country many millions of dollars 
annually. In fact, the poultry product of the United 
States is greater than the dairy product. In many dairy 
communities, where creameries ship out twenty to fifty 
thousand dollars worth of butter a year, the poultry and 
eggs sold bring in as much, and in some cases more, than 
the butter. 

Poultry Records. — The Minnesota Experiment Station 
has been gathering very accurate statistics for several years, 
on eight average farms in each of three counties in Minne- 



POULTRY, BIRDS AND BEES 245 

sota, namely, at Halstad, Norman Co.; Marshall, Lyon Co.; 
and Northfield, Rice Co. These statistics show that the 
value of poultry products, used and sold per farm in 1908, 
was $56.61 at Halstad, $95.75 at Marshall, and $150.43 at 
Northfield. This makes an average of about $100 per farm 
for poultry products per year. 




Figure 109.— White Leghorns, a type of the light breeds, which are the best layers. 

In the United States in 1909 there were produced 1,591,- 
311,371 dozens of eggs on farms. The value was $306,- 
688,960. Practically the same farms reported the production 
of 445,650,124 fowls, valued at $202,506,272. 

A Start with Poultry. — Boys and girls who feel a liking 
for poultry are urged to undertake it as a means of making 
a httle spending money, of earning their way through school, 
or as a business worthy of study. The mother should be 
reheved of a part or all of the care of the poultry. She no 
doubt will share the earnings with them very liberally. If 
poultry is really a part of the farm business, the father will, 
or should, at least, be glad to give them a definite part of 
the work to do and a share in the income, or preferably 
give them entire charge of a portion of the flock. If there 
is a place where poultry may be kept, a few specimens of 



2'46 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

some preferred breed should be secured as a start. There 
will be many things to learn, but information gained in 
'is way is fully as important as what is learned at school, 
i^ather and mother will be able to assist; and, if there is a 
poultry man in the vicinity who is doing well, he will no 
doubt give a great deal of valuable information. A few 




Figure 110. — White Wyandottes, a type of the general purpose breeds valuable 
for both meat and egg production. 

poultry bulletins and papers should be read, and interest 
and success are almost sure to follow. 

Breeds of Poultry. — There are a great many breeds of 
poultry, and most of them are good under special condi- 
tions. There is no best breed. If no particular breed is 
preferred, good specimens of a breed common in the neighbor- 
hood should be secured. 

All common breeds of chickens may be divided into 
three classes — egg, meat and general purpose — according 
to what they are adapted to produce, just as cattle are 
divided into dairy, beef and general purpose classes. 



POULTRY, BIRDS AND BEES 247 

In the egg producing class we have the Leghorns, Min- 
orcas, Spanish and Andalusians. In the meat producing 
class are found the Cochins, Brahmas, and Langshans. 
And in the general purpose class, or those well adapted to 
produce both eggs and meat, are the Plymouth Rocks, 
Wyandottes, Rhode Island Reds, and Orpingtons. 

There are good and poor birds in any breed, and the 




Figure 111. — Barred Plymouth Rocks, a type of the medium or general purpose 

breeds. 

only way to be reasonably sure of getting good chickens is 
to get them from a flock that has a good record as producers' 
of either eggs or meat, or both. 

Questions: 

1. Compare the poultry and the dairy industries. 

2. Does the poultry in your neighborhood receive as much 
attention as the dairy? 

3. What is the conservative estimate of the poultry product in 
your state? 

4. What are the three classes into which all the common breeds 
of poultry may be divided? 



248 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

Arithmetic: 

1. If a farmer keeps 50 hens and each hen lays 125 eggs in a 
year, how many dozen eggs will the farmer get in a year? How much 
will these eggs be worth at 20c. per dozen? 

2. If a farmer keeps 50 hens and half of them produce 10 chickens 
each, how many young chickens will he have? How much are they 
worth at 35c. each? 

3. If 9,000 lbs. of grain, worth Ic. per pound, is required to 
keep 50 hens one year and raise 250 chickens, what is the total cost of 
feed? 




Figure 112. — Two baskets of eggs. The one on the left represents the 75 eggs 
laid by the average hen in one year. The one on the right represents 220 egga 
laid in a year by the best hen at the Crookston Experiment Station. 

CARE OP POULTRY 

Sitting Hens. — Like any other class of live stock, poultry, 
to do well, must be well cared for. During the early part 
of the summer the young chicks require considerable atten- 
tion. A great deal of time may be saved, if several hens 
are set at one time in a building separate from the main 
•poultry house. We mention raising chicks in this way, 
because but comparatively few persons use incubators. A 
woodshed or corncrib that is clean, and that may be dark- 
ened, is a good place in which to set hens. In the evening 
take as many broody hens as you can get, or as you want, 
and put them in this shed or crib, that has been well cleaned 
and provided with good, clean nests, preferably near or on 
the floor. Shut these hens in over night and darken the 
windows. If they continue broody the next morning, set 
them at once with eggs selected from the best hens. Then 



POULTRY , BIRDS AND BEES 249 

provide them with plenty of shelled corn or other grain, 
fresh water and a box of ashes or road dust for their dust 
baths. It will be well also to dust some insect powder in 
the nest to keep away lice and mites. It is but little more 
work to care for a dozen sitting hens in this way than to 
care for one. 

The Young Chicks. — For the first day or so after the 
young chicks are hatched they will not need anything to 
eat, and it is well to keep them in the nest. If the room 
is darkened, the old hens will not be in such a hurry to 
leave the nests. When the chicks are about thirty or thirty- 
six hours old, give them some bread crumbs sHghtly moistened 
in milk. Feed them several times during the day. After 
a day or so, some ground oats, with the hulls removed, may 
be added, and after a week or ten days some ground or 
cracked grain, as corn or wheat, may supply a part of their 
ration. Very small kernels of wheat and millet seed are 
also very good. The chicks should be supplied at all times 
with pure, fresh water and fine grit. Too much care can- 
not be taken in keeping their water and feed clean. Plenty 
of exercise is also necessary. On the farm the chickens 
usually have the run of the whole place, which is the best 
possible condition for them, as they can then get exercise, 
insects, grit, and green food — things that are not so easily 
supplied when they are confined. 

Care of Hens in Winter. — Eggs are one of the chief 
products of poultry, and one's success in the business usually 
depends upon getting eggs in the winter, when they bring 
a good price. Pullets hatched early in the spring are more 
likely to lay during the winter than old hens. To get eggs 
in the winter, one must supply as nearly as possible summer 
conditions. In other words, chickens must be forced to 
get exercise by scratching for their feed, as is necessary if 
their grain feed is thrown in loose straw or litter. They 
should have something to take the place of bugs and worms 
that they get in the summer. Scraps of meat and ground 
bone will answer. They must have something to take the 
place of the sharp stones and gravel that they pick up as 
they run about the fields. Crushed stone or crockery will 
supply this grit. Such material is sold on the market as 



250 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

grit, and poultry should always have a supply in winter. 
The grit aids them in digesting their food. They need 
something to take the place of the green food they get in 
summer. Cabbages, beets, potatoes or sprouted grains will 
supply this need. Some material containing lime, from 
which they can make egg shells, is also necessary. Crushed 
oyster-shells, kept constantly before them, will supply the 
necessary hme. They must be kept comfortable — that is, 
their house should be kept warm enough so that their combs 
will not freeze. Their houses should be sufficiently venti- 
lated to supply fresh air and keep the coop dry. They 
should have a supply of pure water, a place for a dust bath, 
and a clean coop free from vermin. If these few simple 
precautions are observed and a liberal supply of a variety 
of grains, as wheat, barley, oats, and corn, with an occasional 
mash, are supplied, poultry should prove profitable. 

Questions: 

1. In what way may the work of caring for sitting hens be 
lessened? 

2. What can you say regarding the care of young chicks? 

3. What conditions must be provided for hens in winter, if 
they are to lay? 

Arithmetic: 

1. The average hen lays about 75 eggs per year. What are 
the eggs worth at 20c. per dozen? 

2. Some hens lay 200 eggs per year. What are the eggs worth 
at 20c. per dozen? 

3. If a hen can cover 15 eggs, how many eggs will 7 hens cover? 
What would these hens cost at 50c. each? 

4. If each hen lays 100 eggs, worth 20c. per dozen, and raises 
10 chicks, worth 30c. each, in a year, what is the annual income per 
hen? What is the total annual income from 50 hens? 

A 100-HEN POULTRY HOUSE 

A Poultry House. — There are a great many types of 
poultry houses which include all the principles required. 
It is simply a matter of choice with the owner. We describe 
a very common type, merely to emphasize the essentials. 

We will explain in ■ detail a house 16 x 32 feet in size, 
large enough for from eighty to one hundred hens. 

It is placed on well drained land, somewhat protected 
from the north and west, and stands the long way east and 
west, with the high side to the south. 



POULTRY, BIRDS AND BEES 251 

The foundation is of stone or concrete, set in the ground 
at least one foot, and extending above ground six inches. 
A sill 4x6 inches is placed on top of the foundation and 
the studding spiked on top of the sill. The house is 43^ 
feet high at the back and 8 feet high at the front. It has 
a shed roof made of boards covered with prepared roofing. 
The studdings are placed two feet apart and boarded with 
rough boards. The building is then papered with building 
paper and sided. 

Doors and Windows. — A door is placed in each end, 
near the south side; and four windows, about 2x4 feet in 
size, are made in the south side. They are placed high, so 
the sun will shine clear to the back part of the coop. There 
will be an opening near the floor on the south side, through 
which the hens may be let out, or a door may be placed in 
this side, if desired. The windows are made to slip up and 
down, the same as in a house. At least one of the windows 
is provided with a muslin or duck curtain; and, except in 
the most severe weather, the upper sash is let down and the 
opening covered with the canvas. The canvas may be on 
a frame, hinged at the top, or simply tacked in the opening. 
This provides ample ventilation without draught and keeps 
the air pure and dry. In cold weather the windows may 
be partly closed, but never entirely. 

Inside Finish. — The inside may be left with the bare 
studding or preferably ceiled with matched lumber. The 
house is partitioned into two parts, the lower three feet 
of the partition being of boards, so that the fowls cannot 
fight, and the upper part of wire netting. 

Roosts. — To make it easy to clean the coop, and to 
leave all the floor space available for feeding and exercising, 
a platform three feet wide is built against the north wall 
23^ feet from the floor. This is to catch the droppings and 
should be made of matched lumber. Arms of 2 x 4's, 23^ 
feet long, are attached to the back wall one foot above the 
platform, to extend out over the platform. Legs are placed 
under the outer ends of these arms to hold them level with 
the platform. On top of these arms and at right angles to 
them are placed two poles, or 2 x 3's edgewise, with corners 
rounded off, for roosts. The back rooet is about one foot 



252 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



from the wall and the second fifteen or sixteen inches from 
the first. A muslin curtain is hung from the ceiling to 
drop in front of the roosts when needed. To clean the 
droppings from the platform the roosts may be unhooked 




Figure 113. — Floor plan of poultry house. 

and removed, or the front side raised, and both hooked to 
the ceiling. They are then out of the way, so that the clean- 
ing may be thoroughly done. 

Nests. — For nests a 
box 8 to 12 feet long and 
12 inches wide is made, 
with sides 8 inches high. 
This is divided into 
nests 12 to 14 inches 
long, with partitions 18 
inches high. Hens prefer 
nests that are rather 
dark; so a good place for 
them is under the front 
edge of the platform. Place this row of nests close up 
under the front edge used for a droppings board. Then 
hinge a 10-inch board in front of the nests to close the 
10-inch space between the platform and the 8-inch board 
on the front side of the nests. This darkens them some- 




Figure 114. — Cross section of poultry house- 
Note arrangement of roosts and nests 
leaving floor space open. 



POULTRY, BIRDS AND BEES 253 

what. The hens enter from behind. The high par- 
titions between the nests prevent the hens from go- 
ing from one nest to the next, so they are not Ukely 
to disturb one another and break or dirty eggs. When 
gathering the eggs the board in front is opened. These 
nests should be loose, so that they may be taken out to be 
aired, sunned and sprayed, when desired, to keep them free 
from mites and lice. 

The Floor. — A cement floor covered with a little sand 
and clean litter is the best for a poultry house, as it can be 
kept dry and clean with very little work. 

With a poultry house as described, one can keep poultry 
clean and comfortable the whole year through. 

Questions: 

1. What can you say regarding the size and arrangement of 
vvindows in a poultry house? 

2. What advantages are there in having the roosts and other 
inside fixtures of a poultry house removable? 

3. Describe a good arrangement for nests in a poultry house. 
Arithmetic: 

1. How many yards of muslin in a strip 16 ft. long and 3 ft. 
wide? How much would it cost at 12c. per yard? 

2. How many feet of lumber would be required to build a plat- 
form 3 ft. wide by 16 ft. long? (Allow 1-6 for matched lumber.) 
How much would it cost at $30.00 per thousand feet? 

3. To make a row of nests 12 ft. long, as described above, requires 
2 pieces 1 x 8, 1 piece 1 x 10, and 1 piece 1 x 12 — all 12 ft. long, and 
1 piece 1 X 12, 20 ft. long. How many feet of lumber are required? 
How much would it cost at $24.00 per thousand feet? 

FEEDING LAYING HENS 

Rations for Laying Hens. — It is not easy to determine 
the amount of feed eaten by an average laying hen. If a 
person is to study the poultry business from a practical 
point of view he must know approximately the requirements 
of his flock. It must be remembered that food requirements 
vary; but it is well to have some basis for one's calculations. 
We submit a few rations that have been fed by practical 
poultrymen, successfully. The following rations are based 
on the requirements of an average laying hen for one day. 

Ration No. 1, reported by the Cornell Experiment 
Station. See Bulletin No. 212, page 11: .175 lbs. wheat; 
.07 lb. ground bone; .022 lb. cabbage. 



254 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

The above is the average amount fed per day to each 
hen. The actual amount varied each day as the require- 
ments of the hens varied. Early in the morning a part of 
the wheat was scattered in the straw on the floor of the 
coop. In the middle of the afternoon the flock was fed all 
the cooked cut meat and bone they would eat up quickly. 
Then at 4:30 p. m. they were given a liberal feed of wheat 
again. The wheat was always scattered in the straw to 
make the fowls exercise. The cabbage was fed by having 
a head suspended from a wire and in reach of the hens. 

In addition to the feed, the hens always had a supply 
of fresh water, grit and oyster-shells. Grit is necessary to 
aid in the digestion of the food, and oyster-shells are neces- 
sary to supply the material of which egg-shells are made. 

Ration No. 2, reported by the Utah Experiment Station, 
Bulletin No. 92, page 139: .156 lb. mixed grain; .022 lb. 
ground bone; .004 lb. beef scraps; .008 lb. gluten meal; .066 
lb. skimmed milk. 

As in ration No. 1, grit, shells and water were supplied 
in addition to the feed. The figures represented the average 
amount of each kind of feed given per day to each hen. 
Ration No. 2 supplies a httle more variety than No. 1, but 
has the disadvantage of necessitating the purchase of feeds 
not raised on the farm. 

Variety. — Hens, like any other class of stock, like a 
variety of feeds, and in this respect the last ration is good. 
Variety in grains is very desirable, and is easily provided 
by feeding a mixture of the common farm grams. Corn 
can profitably be added to the ration, even of laying hens, 
to replace a part of the grain feed. Corn is the cheapest 
of the grain feeds. If corn is fed, it is well to give it the 
last thing in the afternoon, so that the hens may have a 
crop full when they go to roost; but a large amount of corn 
is too fattening. Millet seed, buckwheat and sunflower 
seed are good feeds to add in small amounts to the grain 
ration, to add variety. 

Green Feed. — Chickens will eat quite an amount of 
fine cut clover or alfalfa, or the leaves that may usually be 
gathered in the mow or at the bottom of the chute where 
clover or alfalfa hay is thrown down. This may be fed 



POULTRY, BIRDS AND BEES 255 

dry, or moistened and mixed with a little ground feed. 
Hens will eat several pounds of this material during the 
winter, if given the opportunity. 

Mangels, beets or carrots are also valuable feeds for 
laying hens in winter. Such feeds take the place of the 
green grass hens eat in the summer. 

Ration No. 3. — Fed with good results by the Maine 
Experiment Station. See Farmer's Bulletin No. 357, page 
33, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: .246 lb. grain and meal; 
.011 lb. oyster shell; .006 lb. dry cracked bone; .005 lb. 
grit; .006 lb. charcoal; .027 lb. clover. 

The above is the average amount given per hen per 
day. This ration was fed in practically the same manner 
as ration No. 1, except for the mash or ground feed. This 
mash was made of a mixture of 2 parts by weight of bran, 
1 part cornmeal, 1 part middlings, 1 part gluten meal, 1 
part linseed meal and 1 part beef scraps, and was kept 
constantly before the birds in a feed trough with a slatted 
front. This mash was fed dry. 

A simpler mash, composed of bran, some ground grain 
of any or several kinds, and, if possible, a little beef scrap, 
would hkely do as well as the more complicated mash. 

Questions: 

1. Describe the method followed in feeding ration No. 1. 

2. What can you say regarding feeding hens several different 
kinds of feed? 

3. In what ways may green feed be suppUed to hens in winter? 

4. Describe the composition and method of feeding the mash in 
ration No. 3. 

Arithmetic: 

1. How much of the various kinds of feed will a hen eat in 200 
days, if fed ration No. 1? 

2. How much will it cost to feed a hen 200 days on ration No. 
1, if wheat is worth 85c. per bushel, ground bone Ic. per pound, and 
cabbage $5.00 per ton? 

3. How many eggs must a hen lay in 200 days to pay for her 
feed, if she is fed ration No. 1 and eggs are worth 25c. per aozen? 

BIRDS 

Importance of Birds. — It is estimated that insects destroy 

many millions of dollars worth of crops each year. It may 

safely be stated that the chief food of birds is harmful 

inseote. On this aooount birds generally are very valuable 



256 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

to farmers economically as well as being a delight with 
their songs and calls. Birds deserve the protection and 
care of farmers. It is encouraging that we are beginning 
to realize the importance of birds, and that their wanton 
slaughter by boys, hunters and those seeking them to 
adorn ladies' hats, is being discouraged, and in many states 
laws have been passed to protect them. 

Know Birds. — Every boy and girl should learn to know 
birds. A few birds are really harmful and should be des- 
troyed, but only a few. Many suspected by casual ob- 
servers of being harmful have, on close study, proved to 
be helpful. Even hawks and owls, which have too often 
been condemned, are generally worthy of protection. The 
only safe policy is either to know birds, so as to be sure 
that the ones killed are really harmful, or else assume that 
all birds are useful. Write to the U. S. Department of 
Agriculture, Washington, D. C, for Farmers' Bulletins Nos. 
509, 513, 621 and 630. These bulletins will give much 
useful information about birds and how to attract and pro- 
tect them. Write also to the Secretary of the National 
Association of Audubon Societies, at 1974 Broadway, New 
York, N. Y., for further information. 

Attract birds to your homes by providing them with 
water, suitable houses, by supplying some of the winter 
birds with food during severe weather, by protecting them 
from cats, and by growing groves and shelter belts. There 
are few things more pleasant than to waken in the morning 
with the air literally filled with the music of birds. It is 
even more pleasant, if you know that some effort of yours 
has helped to make it possible for them to live and thrive 
in your neighborhood. It not only is pleasant, but it pays. 

BEES 

Importance of Bees. — The total honey crop of the 
country is not large; that is, it does not represent nearly 
so much wealth, as the wheat crop or dairy products, but 
nearly everyone likes honey, and honey is said to be one 
of the most wholesome sweets. While there are not a great 
many who derive large incomes or make a business of keep- 
ing bees, it is beheved that more should keep them. Bee- 



POULTRY, BIRDS AND BEES 



257 



keeping is light, pleasant work, and nearly every family 
in the country might at least have an abundant supply of 
fresh honey in return for a very little labor. 

Varieties of Bees. — More persons would keep bees, if 
they were not afraid of being stung. The common black 
honey bee is often quite vicious and will sting at the least 




Figure 115. — A well-developed apiary. 

provocation. Italian bees are now quite common and, if 
handled at all reasonably, are not in the least vicious. 
Most bee-keepers handle the Itahan bees with bare hands 
and bare faces and very rarely are stung. 

Sources of Honey. — Honey is the nectar of flowers 
gathered by bees. White clover, sweet clover, buckwheat 
and basswood are the chief sources of honey, though the 
bees will gather honey from a great variety of flowers, if 
none of the choice plants are available. Honey is a product 
that, unless gathered and stored by bees, is entirely lost. 
Bees not only gather honey, a useful product, from a source 
that costs nothing, but they are of material benefit to many 
of the plants they visit, as they aid in the pollination of 
the flowers. 

A hive of bees on every farm is a good slogan. To 
know about bees and their industrious, orderly habits i3 



258 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

an inspiration. In every hive there is a queen, several 
drones, and several thousand workers. The workers go 
through a regular coui'se of training that fits them for their 
work. Then they work industriously as long as they live, 
which is usually only a few weeks. Write to the U. S. 
Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. C, or to 
your State College of Agriculture for information about 
bees. 
Questions: 

1. Name as many of the common birds of your community as 
you can and tell whether they are useful or harmful. 

2. How may one encourage the nesting of birds about one's 
home? Why is it advisable to do this? 

3. Tell what you can about bees. 
Arithmetic: 

1. It has been estimated that insects cause a loss of $700,000,000 
annually to farm crops in the United States. How much does this 
loss amount to per farm? (There are 7,000,000 farms in the United 
States.) 

2. If, by destroying the birds, this loss from insects were doubled, 
what would be the total loss in the United States? What would be 
the total loss per farm? 

3. If, by protecting useful birds and increasing their numbers 
the loss could be reduced 50%, what would be the total saving in the 
United States? What would be the total saving per farm? 

Exercises: 

1. As many pupils as can do so should keep at least a few pure- 
bred fowls of some chosen breed. A careful record of all expenses 
and returns should be kept. Report results at end of the school year. 

2. Weigh a dozen large eggs and then a dozen small ones. Note 
the difference. Proportionately, how much more valuable are the larger 
eggs? 

3. If interested in raising large flocks of chickens, get bulletins 
on incubators and brooders. Also try to examine an incubator and 
observe one in use. 

4. Put some suet or grain outside for birds in winter. In some 
shady spot make a place for birds to drink and bathe in the summer 
time. 

5. Find out what a hive of bees costs, how much it costs to keep 
it, and what average returns may be expected from it. Show also in 
what respect bees are valuable aside from being a money maker. 



CHAPTER XX 



AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING 

THE ROAD PROBLEM 

Importance. — Few boys and girls realize the great im- 
portance of roads. As we walk over them to school day- 
after day we are likely to think how bad or how long they 
are, rather than to think what they are for, how they are 
made and how maintained. 

Uses of Roads. — Roads are used as a means of com- 

munication, and 

as they become 
better it is easier 
for persons to 
travel and to haul 
loads upon them. 
Where roads are 
good, therefore, 
we can with less 
effort and much 
greater comfort 
go to school, to 
church, to town 
and to our neigh- 
bors. Such con- 
ditions make life 
pleasanter in the 
country and have 
a very strong ten- 
dency to make 
property more 




Figure 116. — A well-constructed turnpike 



valuable. Good roads have an educational and social in- 
fluence of as much importance as their economic value. 
Cost of Roads. — We often hear the remark that roads 
are poor, because it costs too much to build good ones. 
But did it ever occur to you that bad roads may cost more 



260 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



than good ones? All products of the farm must be trans- 
ported over roads, and it may cost more to haul these 
products to market for several years, over poor roads, than 
to build good roads and haul the products over them. 

Points to Consider.- — Are the roads good between your 
home and the schoolhouse? Between your home and town? 







Figure 117. — A specimen of a bad road. 

Are there steep hills, or places where the road is rough, 
or muddy, or sandy? Have you thought that the size of 
the load that can be hauled to town is determined by the 
size of the load that can be hauled over the worst place or 
places? This is true; and many times one has to go to town 
with only half a load, on account of some bad place m the 
road. The cost of marketing farm products is thus in- 
creased and consequently the price of farm produce tends 
to increase; because, if the roads are bad, fewer products 
can be brought to town and fewer farmers will try to get 
products to market. Persons who live in town and have 
to buy the farm products are interested in good roads, be- 
cause they want to get their vegetables, flour, etc., as cheap 



AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING 261 

as possible. For this reason it is right to tax all the people 
in the county, state or in the United States, for the pur- 
pose of building good roads, because all the people are 
benefited by them. 

Roads are nearly always four rods wide. This width 
consumes a great deal of land. A strip two rods wide is 
taken off all land adjoining a highway. Roads are made 
this width to give ample room for turning and to allow 
space for ditches, cuts and fills. 
Questions: 

1. In what way do poor roads affect the price of farm products? 

2. Why is it right for those Hving in town to pay part of the 
expense of building good roads? 

3. Explain how poor roads may be more expensive than good 
ones. 

4. What are some of the advantages of good roads besides mak- 
ing it easier to market farm products? 

Arithmetic: 

1. If ten teams pass over a road each day, how many trips will 
be made over the road in a year? 

2. If 3,650 trips are made over a road each year, and there 
would be a saving of 2c. per mile each trip, if the roads were good, 
how much would be saved per mile per year? 

3. If $1,000 per mile were invested in good roads, and $73 were 
saved annually thereby, how long would it take to pay the $1,000, 
drawing 4% interest by applying the $73 saved annually? 

ROAD CONSTRUCTION 

The object in view in road building is to make the road 
bed as near level as possible, that is, to avoid hills; also to 
make and keep it as firm and unyielding as possible with 
the material and labor at hand. It is sometimes no farther 
around a hill than over it, and in such cases it is much more 
practical to go around. A pail handle is often used to illustrate 
this point. When standing erect the handle is the same length 
as when lying down, but a road, as represented by the erect 
handle, would be much harder to travel than a road repre- 
sented by the handle lying flat. 

Stone Roads. — In the older countries, and in the older 
and more thickly populated portions of this country, a large 
portion of the roads are built of some hard material, as 
stone. A very common form of stone road is called ma- 
cadam. It is named after the man who invented this 
process of road building. To build a macadam road, the 



262 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



bed is first given the slope desired, then covered with a 
layer of coarse, crushed rock, which is rolled with a heavy 
roller. Then another layer of finer crushed rock is placed 
on top, and rolled until it works in between the particles of 
the coarser material. More, but still finer, crushed rock or 
sand is added, sprinkled with water and rolled until a smooth, 
hard surface is formed. A stone road made as previously 

described, and from 6 
inches to 12 inches thick, 
makes an excellent, hard, 
permanent road. Such 
roads cost so much 
($3,000 to $6,000 per 
mile) that they can be 
built only where the pop- 
ulation is dense" and 
where there is a great 
deal of travel over them. 
Earth Roads. — In most 
farming districts, for 
many years to come, 
material at hand; which 
Such roads, if proper- 




Figure 118. — A split-log drag faced with 
steel. (See description and cost page 252). 



roads must be made of the 

means, in most cases, common earth. 

ly made and maintained, are very serviceable and may be 

much better than country roads generally are. 

Drainage. — Since the object in making roads is to keep 
them hard, it is plain that, to do this, water must be kept 
from standing at or near the surface. Drainage, then, is 
the first problem in building roads (except sandy roads) 
and it is safe to say that, if all roads were properly drained, 
the greatest problem in road building would be solved. 

The Turnpike.^ — The most common form of road is a 
turnpike, made by taking earth from each side of the road 
and putting it in the middle. This makes a very good 
form of road, as the center of the road is high, so that the 
water runs off to the sides into the ditches constructed 
there. Often water remains in these ditches, because no 
outlet is provided by which it can escape into the natural 
waterways. Water standing beside a road, and within two 
to four feet of the surface, is very often detrimental to the 



AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING 



263 



roadbed, as it soaks up through the earth and keeps it soft. 
It is sometimes necessary to ditch across some farmer's 
land to get the water out of these roadside ditches. Farmers 
should willingly co-operate with the town board to do such 
work. Instead, they sometimes object. But in most states 
the town board is authorized by law to construct such 




Figure 119. — Cutting weeds along the roadside. 

ditches as are necessary across any property. It, of course, 
must pay damages, if such ditch does damage the property; 
but, if it proves a benefit, then the owner of the property 
must help pay the cost of constructing it. 

Where the road is made mostly of clay, it is greatly 
benefited by the addition of sand, as the mixture is less 
sticky, sheds water better and dries out more quickly. Like- 
wise sandy roads are benefited by covering them with clay, 
as the clay helps to bind the sand together and keep the 
road hard. 

If good gravel is at hand, that is sharp and will pack 
together, almost any of the common earth roads will be 
benefited by a coating of it. 

Good gravel roads are better than earth roads, but not 
so good as stone roads. They are much cheaper than stone 



264 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

roads; and many communities are graveling a few miles of 
road each year, thereby gradually securing a very service- 
able system of roads. 
Questions: 

1. What is the chief object in view in road building? 

2. Tell how a macadam road is built. 

3. What is the first problem to consider in constructing earth 
roads? 

4. Why is a turnpike a good form of road? 
Arithmetic: 

1. If a road is 4 rods wide, how many square feet of surface are 
there on a mile of road? 

2. If there are 30 in. of rainfall in a year, how many tons of water 
fall on a mile of road in a year? 

(A cu. ft. of water weighs 62.42 lbs.) 

3. How many cubic yards of gravel are required to cover a mile 
of road 12 ft. wide and 6 in. deep? 

MAINTENANCE OF ROADS 

Road Repairing. — In well settled communities the main 
part of road work is to keep roads in repair. Repair consists 
in fixing bridges and culverts, filling in ruts and mudholes,, 
opening old and making new side ditches, and smooth- 
ing off and rounding up the roadbed so it will readily shed 
water. After an earth road is well made — that is, made as 
level as practicable and built into a turnpike with ditches 
on either side — there is nothing so cheap and effective for 
keeping it in repair as the split log drag. 

King's Split-Log Drag. — Every one interested in good 
roads should know of the King split log drag. It is named 
after Mr. D. Ward King, of Maitland, Missouri, who first 
made known to the public the value of this excellent little 
implement. It is made of a log ten or twelve inches through 
and about eight feet long, spht in halves. The halves are 
fastened together by boring two-inch holes through them 
and driving in strong stakes two and one half to three feet long, 
just as a wood-rack bed is made, with both split surfaces 
of the log facing the same way. If a log is not at hand, a 
timber about three inches by eight inches may be used 
instead. The efficiency of the drag is increased by putting 
a strip of steel on each cutting edge as shown in Figure 118. 
The drag then cuts better and wears much longer. It is 



AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING 265 

drawn by a chain in the direction of its faces, and at an 
angle, so that it pushes earth toward the center of the road 
just as a reversible road grader. 

Why Earth Roads Need Dragging. — When a road is first 
made it has a gradual and continuous slope from the center 
towards the sides. No place is left for water to stand on 
the road, and it soon dries off after a rain. As heavy loads 
are drawn over earth roads, the wagon wheels cut into the 
surface and throw up a ridge just outside of where the 
wheels run. You can see this on almost any road, especially 
after a rain. If these wheel tracks are allowed to remain, 
when it rains water will stand in them and soften the road- 
bed. Then as wagons pass over them they are made much 
deeper. The road drag is the simplest way of filling these 
ruts. It is cheaply constructed, and one man and two or 
three horses can manage it. 

When to Use a Road Drag. — You have no doubt heard 
of "puddling'' soil — working it when it is wet. Farmers 
sometimes make reservoirs for water in clay soil by excavat- 
ing a hole, wetting the soil in the bottom and tamping it or 
leading horses or cattle about in the muddy bottom. This 
puddhng makes the soil hold water. Since we want the 
surface of the road to be impervious to water, it is desirable 
to have it puddled. This can best be done by dragging it 
soon after a rain, when it is still wet. If a puddled surface 
will hold water, as in the case of reservoirs, it will also shed 
water when rounded and smoothed, as on a dragged road. 
There are also other reasons for dragging at such a time. 
The surface of the road is soft and the ridges are more easily 
cut off and pushed to the center. Men and teams can not 
work to good advantage in the fields, and the road dries 
more quickly. When all main traveled earth roads are 
dragged soon after every heavy rain, roads will be very 
much better than they are now, and the cost of this work 
is so slight that any well settled farming community can 
afford it, or each farmer can well afford to drag the road 
along his property. 

If a hole is to be filled in a road, material similar to the 
road should be used, i. e., it is not wise to fill holes in a clay 
road with sand or holes in a sandy road with clay, as they 
do not wear uniformly and so make the road rough. 



266 ELEMEIsTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

Sandy roads are best maintained by keeping them 
covered with straw or other vegetable matter, as this helps 
to hold moisture, and sandy roads are firmer when moist 
than when dry. One of the state highway commissions 
suggests that the road supervisors in sandy sections sow some 
strong growing crop in the right of way, to cut and throw 
in the road. 
Questions: 

1. Describe a King split-log drag. 

2. For what reasons do earth roads need dragging? 

3. What is accomplished by dragging a road when it is still a 
little wet? 

Arithmetic: 

1. How many feet of lumber in two timbers 3 in. thick, 10 in. 
wide and 8 ft. long? How much is it worth at $30 per thousand feet? 

2. How much will a strip of mild steel, ^g in. thick, 2}/^ in. wide 
and 16 ft. long, weighing 3 lbs. per ft. cost at 3c. per pound? 

3. A boy can make a road drag with the above materials in 5 
hours. His time is worth 10c. per hour. What is the total cost of 
the drag? 

4. A boy with 3 horses can drag a mile of road in 1 hour. How 
much will it cost, if the boy's time is worth 10c. per hour and each 
horse's time is worth 9c. per hour? How much will it cost, if he drags 
the mile of road five times? If he drags it ten times? 

DRAINAGE 

Drainage is the process of opening up a channel by 
which the surplus water in the soil may run off by the force 
of gravity. In hilly or rolling land drainage is provided 
naturally, as the water runs off over the surface. Sandy 
soils with sandy or gravelly subsoil seldom require artificial 
drainage, because the surplus water easily runs down through 
the ground. Flat land, or heavy clay land, or even sandy 
land with a heavy clay subsoil that the water cannot get 
through, often requires drainage. There are two general 
ways of draining land, surface drainage and tile drainage. 

Drainage where needed affords one of the most profitable 
investments on the farm. Too much water fills the spaces 
between the soil particles and crowds out the air. We have 
learned that seeds and the roots of plants require air that 
they may grow. The roots of common field crops will not 
grow in soil that is filled with water; that is, where there is 
so much water that it crowds out the air. 



AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING 267 

Surface drainage is provided by digging ditches through 
and from a field needing drainage to a lower place called 
the outlet, as a ravine, a river, or a lake. Unless land is 
higher than the lake or river to be used for an outlet, it 
cannot be drained in the usual way. A ditch, to be effective 
in draining land, must start at the lowest place to be drained 
and continue in a downward slope to the outlet. Drain- 
age water can run of its own accord only down hill. Sur- 
face drainage is the cheaper method and the more common. 
The chief objection to it is the continual work necessary 
to keep the ditches open. Grass and weeds grow in them 
and clog them up and earth washes into them or is worked 
into them by cultivation. Open ditches are also trouble- 
some to work around. The space occupied by the ditch 
is wasted, and weeds are Kkely to make it unsightly. 

Tile drainage is the more expensive form of drainage, 
but is very much to be preferred. TUe are pipes three or 
more inches in diameter, one foot long, and are made either 
of clay or concrete. Clay tile are at present more common 
than concrete. Tile are laid in the ground two and a half 
feet or more deep, and on a gradual grade or slope, so that 
any water that gets into them easily runs down the tile to 
the outlet. Good tile drainage work requires the use of 
rather accurate leveling instruments, and careful work in 
laying the tile to insure a continuous slope, so the water will 
all run out. Good tile, well laid, will last almost indefinitely. 
They are covered with soil, so that there are no irregular 
fields, waste land, or unsightly strips of weeds, as is the case 
with open ditches. 
Questions: 

1. What do you understand by the term drainage? 

2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of open or sur- 
face drains? Of a tUe drain? 

Arithmetic: 

1. If drain tile are 1 ft. long, how many rods of drain will 100 
tile lay? 

2. If tile cost $30 per 1,000, how much does enough tile to lay 
one rod cost? 

3. If an acre of drained land yields 50 bus. of corn per year 
worth 60c. per bushel, and it costs $15 per acre to grow the crop, 
how much profit will there be per acre? How many similar crops 
will it take to pay for its drainage, if it cost $25? 



268 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

IRRIGATION 

Irrigation is the application of water to land artificially. 
In many parts of the United States there is not enough 
rainfall to ensure crops. In other parts there is practically 
no rainfall. In these places, if crops are to be grown, water 
must be supplied artificially. 

Sources of water for irrigation are rivers, reservoirs, 
wells and lakes. Many rivers start up in the mountains 
and flow down through lower and flat country. For irriga- 
tion purposes, these rivers are dammed up, or a part of the 
water is diverted from the main stream and carried by 
means of ditches to the land to be irrigated. Reservoirs are 
often constructed in some position higher than the land to 
be irrigated. Water from snow or rain on the hills higher 
than the reservoir is caught in the reservoir. As it is wanted, 
it is conveyed in ditches out over the land to be irrigated. 
Water is sometimes pumped from wells, streams or lakes, 
and thus raised high enough so that it can be carried in 
ditches to fields needing irrigation. Water may be pumped 
directly into the ditches as needed, or it may be pumped 
at any time and stored in reservoirs for use later. 

Distribution. — Watering a lawn with a hose or a flower 
bed with a sprinkling can is irrigating, but this means of 
applying water to the soil is naturally limited to very small 
areas. During a crop season it is necessary to apply water 
equal to several inches deep over the land to ensure a good 
crop. We have learned that it requires more than 500 
barrels to cover an acre one inch deep. To make irrigation 
practical, some very easy way of distributing water is neces- 
sary. The most common way of distributing water is by 
means of open ditches. Large ditches with high banks are 
dug through the fields to be irrigated. By damming up 
the ditches the water can be raised in them a little higher 
than the surrounding fields. Then small lateral ditches a 
few feet apart may be opened at the sides of the big ditch, 
and the water will then flow out over the land and settle 
into the soil just as rain. In a few places water is carried 
over the fields in tile laid just under the surface of the soil. 
The water comes out of the joints in the tile, and is absorbed 
by the soil. This method is called sub-irrigation. 



AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING 269 

Uses of irrigation are to furnish moisture, and some- 
times plant food for growing crops, and it is sometimes used 
to wash out of the soil undesirable salts (called alkali) 
occasionally found in large enough quantities in soils to 
injure plants. By applying large quantities of water, it 
dissolves these salts, and if the soil is tiled or has a porous 
subsoil, they are carried away and the soil will become 
productive. 

Advantages of irrigation are a sure supply of moisture, 
which is not always the case when farmers depend on rain- 
fall. Water may be apphed just when it is needed, and in 
just the amounts needed. In such sections farmers are 
very seldom bothered by rain when haying or harvesting. 
The disadvantages are the cost of the water and ditches, 
the labor of applying the water, and the bother of the 
ditches in cultivating. 
Questions: 

1 What is irrigation? What experience have you had with 
irrigation? 

2. What are some of the sources of water for irrigation? 

3. Describe two or more ways by which irrigation water may 
be apphed to the soU. 

Arithmetic: 

1. How many cubic yards of earth would be moved in digging 
a ditch 3 ft. deep and 3 ft. wide, 80 rods long? How much would it 
cost at 15c. per yard? 

2. How many acres of land in a field 400 ft. square? How many 
feet of furrows or small lateral ditches would be needed to irrigate 
such a field, assuming there was a main ditch along one side and that 
the furrows were 15 ft. apart? 

FARM MACHINERY 

Machinery for doing farm work has been improved 
wonderfully in the past half century. In fact, there is no 
other part of the business of agriculture that has improved 
so much as the machinery used. It is only a very short 
time ago when plows were very crude, and crops were 
planted, harvested and threshed by hand. The people of 
the world owe much to the men who have given their time 
and energy to the improvement of farm machinery. The 
benefit has been equally valuable to people living in cities 
as well as to farmers. When farm crops were produced 
largely by hand labor, one man could handle only a very 



270 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



few acres of land. Now, with modern machinery, one man 
can handle, in the production of general farm crops, one 
hundred or more acres and still work no harder, and prob- 
ably not so hard as formerly. The effect of improved farm 
machinery on agriculture is shown by the following. 

The Bureau of Statistics of the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture pubhshed a statement to the effect 




Figure 120.- — Four good horses on a gang plow. 

that in 1855 it took four hours and thirty-four minutes of 
human labor to produce one bushel of corn; while in 1894, 
a bushel of corn could be produced with but forty-one 
minutes of human labor. 

Investment in Machinery. — At present there is a com- 
paratively large investment in farm machinery on every 
farm, and quite a considerable part of the farm earnings 
must be expended for repairs for operating expense of 
machinery or for new machines. Farm machinery is, there- 
fore, well worth studying. Sometimes machines are pur- 
chased when they should not be, and sometimes a needed 
machine is not purchased when it would be real economy 



AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING 271 

to buy it. To determine whether or not to buy a machine 
requires a Httle careful study of the facts in the case. It 
is simply a question of what is the cheapest and best way 
of doing the work to be done. 

Example: A farmer may have twenty acres of corn to 
cut each year. He has choice of several things to do. He 
may be able to hire it cut by hand, and can find out about 
how much it will cost him. He may be able to hire a neigh- 
bor who has a corn binder to cut it. He will know how 
much this will cost. He may be able to hire a binder by 
the day, or by the acre, and cut it himself. He can figure 
the approximate cost, or he may buy a binder and cut it 
himself. To determine the cost when he owns the binder 
himself, he must figure in interest on investment. (A new 
corn binder will cost about $125.) He must figure deprecia- 
tion. (A corn binder depreciates about 10 per cent per 
year.) He must figure repairs, twine, oil and cost of shelter, 
also the labor required to cut the twenty acres of corn. In 
this way he may determine rather accurately which is the 
cheapest way. He must not overlook, however, the advan- 
tage and satisfaction that comes from owning a machine 
and having it to use just when he wants it without waiting 
for someone else or having to spend time looking for a ma- 
chine or helping to do the work. 

Using Machinery. — Some persons can get much more 
service out of machinery than others. To do good work a 
machine must be in good condition, well oiled, well sharpened, 
if it is a machine that cuts, the parts all adjusted so that 
there are no loose joints or bearings that do not run freely. 
One used to a machine can tell instantly by the sound or 
work of it whether it is running properly or not. A machine 
that is not in good condition is wearing out much more 
rapidly, and hauls much harder than one that is in good 
condition. A good machinist hkes machinery, enjoys see- 
ing it run well, and will repair it at once when it is out of 
order. Such men get good service out of machinery, do 
good work with it, and find real pleasure in running it. 

Shelter. — One of the very common causes of loss and 
short life of farm machinery is lack of shelter. Some ma- 
chines and parts of machines are not seriously injured by 



272 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

standing out of doors, while other machines deteriorate as 
rapidly standing idle out of doors as when in use. Machin- 
ery left out of doors not only depreciates in value, but it 
runs harder, is unsightly, is usually not where it is wanted, 
and parts are often found missing or broken just when the 
machine is wanted. Modern progressive agriculture that 
appeals to strong industrious men and women requires that 
convenient, serviceable shelter be provided for all farm 
machinery, and that each machine -be in its place under 
cover when not in use. 
Questions: 

1. What can you say about the improvement in farm machin- 
ery? 

2. Tell what you can about operating machinery. 

3. Give as many reasons as you can why farm machinery should 
be sheltered 

Arithmetic: 

1. If it required in 1855 4 hours and 34 minutes of man labor 
to produce a bushel of corn, how many bushels could a man have 
produced in one day of 10 hours? 

2. If a man can now produce 1 bushel of corn in 41 minutes of 
labor, how many bushels of corn can be produced in one day of 10 
hours? 

3. Find the annual cost of a corn binder, including depreciation 
10%, interest 6%, and repairs 2%, the binder costing $125. What 
is the cost per acre, if one cuts 20 acres of corn per year? 

FARM BUILDINGS 

Importance. — Farm buildings represent from 10% to 
30% of the value of all farm property. In other words, 
on a farm worth $10,000 the buildings are worth usually 
from $1,000 to $3,000. On the average farm from $100 to 
$300 is spent each year in building new buildings and repair- 
ing and remodeling old buildings. Buildings on the farm 
provide shelter for family, stock, machinery, crops for sale 
and for feed. There is probably no other thing on the 
farm that has so much to do with the appearance of the 
farm as the buildings. For the above reasons, namely on 
account of the cost, the use and the appearance of build- 
ings, it is very important that very careful attention be 
given to the planning, arrangement, construction and 
maintenance of farm buildings. ' 

Permanence and Cost.— In newly settled sections it is 



AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING 



273 



usually necessary, on account of cost and uncertainty as to 
markets and types of farming, to build rather cheaply and 
temporarily. After a farming community is well estab- 
lished, the farms developed and equipped with live stock 
and machinery, and the farm is earning a fair income, it 
usually becomes advisable to plan buildings carefully, and 
build them of more permanent materials, so that repairs 
and depreciation will be lessened. A log building or a 
cheaply constructed frame building may be expected to 




Figure 121. — An attractive barn. 

last ten or fifteen years. A well built frame building, a 
brick, or a concrete building will last fifty or more years. 
The first cost of the more permanent buildings will be 
greater, but the annual cost will probably be no more. 
Because these better buildings are to be used longer, it is 
more important that they be well planned so that they 
will serve their purpose in the best possible way. 

Planning. — A great many farm buildings are put up 
without careful planning. Farm buildings may be just as 
artistic and attractive as buildings anywhere, and, if so, 
will make the country more attractive and help to offset 
the pull to the city. Likewise farm buildings are used 
every day in the year in doing the work of the farm, and if 
so planned as to facilitate the work in the home and the 
work of caring for the stock, they will be of much greater 
real value. Architects have made a special study of plan- 



274 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

ning buildings, and it is as a rule real economy to employ 
an experienced man to plan any buildings of importance. 
His knowledge of available materials, their strength and 
uses, and the proper arrangement of parts will often avoid 
expensive mistakes in building and usually give greater 
satisfaction and value for money expended than one can 
get without a carefully worked out plan. 

Conveniences in the farm home, such as running water, 
heat and light are now becoming quite common in the older, 
better developed sections of the country. With the dis- 
covery of the septic tank that will handle and dispose of 
farm sewage with little cost and no danger to health, run- 
ning water and plumbing may be had in country as well 
as city homes, where sewer systems are provided. (Your 
State University or the United States Department of Agri- 
culture will furnish information regarding the construction 
of a septic tank.) The windmill or gas engine, now found 
on most farms, can pump water for the house as well as 
for stock. There is much work to be done in a country 
home, more on the average than in the city home, and 
modern conveniences that will lighten or make more pleasant 
this work should be as freely provided as modern up-to- 
date machinery is provided to lighten the work on the farm. 
Hot and cold water, so piped that it will run into a sink or 
bathtub when wanted and out again when one is through 
with it, is as great a convenience in the country as in the 
city, and may be provided just as easily. Electric or gas 
lights, gas for cooking, also hot air, hot water or steam heat- 
ing plants are all available for use in the country, and as 
soon as finances permit should be provided. 

Maintenance.^ — Unless kept in repair, buildings rapidly 
depreciate in usefulness, value, and appearance. It is well, 
if possible, to have a definite time each year to look over 
all the buildings on the farm and make any needed repairs. 
Paint adds greatly to the looks of buildings. It also pro- 
tects them from deterioration. Buildings do not need paint- 
ing every year, but usually should be painted once in three 
to five years. Window lights and loose hinges and boards 
should be repaired or replaced as soon as out of repair, 
likewise stalls, pens, floors and mangers should be looked 



AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING 275 

after.. Lack of attention to these things may cause serious 
loss or damage besides decreasing the value, utility and 
appearance of the property. 
Questions: 

1. What can you say about the importance of farm buildings? 

2. Do you think the farm home may and should be provided 
with modern conveniences? Why? 

3. What are some of the things to look after in keeping buildings 
in repair? 

Arithmetic: 

1. Determine as nearly as you can the total value of all the 
buildings on your home farm, or some farm with which you are fami- 
liar. 

2. How many thousand shingles will it take to shingle a roof 
each side of which is 28 ft. by 80 ft., if 1,000 shingles will cover 12.5 
sq. ft.? 

3. If a gallon of paint will cover 50 sq. yds. of surface, how 
much paint will be required to paint a square house 30 ft. by 30 ft., 
16 ft. high? 

THE SILO 

A silo is a receptacle with air-tight walls in which green, 
succulent feed, usually corn, may be put and kept in good 
condition until wanted. Silos are usually made round, 
because in this form they are stronger, and there are no 
corners in which it is difficult to pack silage. The material 
stored in a silo is called silage. 

Importance. — A silo is recognized as an important part 
of the equipment of an up-to-date stock farm. It is no 
longer an experiment, as silos have now been in use more 
than twenty-five years in this country. If one will visit a 
number of farmers' who have used silage, one will be con- 
vinced that the silo is practical on a fair-sized stock farm. 
Men who have used silos are their strongest advocates. 

Advantages. — Silage is relished by nearly all kinds of 
farm animals. It is palatable, nutritious, and is a means 
by which the entire corn plant may be saved. With a silo 
one may frequently save an immature crop of corn that 
would otherwise be largely wasted. Mature corn, how- 
ever, makes the best silage. The silo provides for the 
storage of a large amount of feed in a small space. It is 
a convenient means of storing feed, and silage may be fed 
at any time of year, summer or winter, or it may be kept 
over from year to year. So a good silo filled with corn 



276 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



silage insures one against a shortage of feed in winter or 
summer. Silage is often fed in summer to help out when 
pastures are short. 

Kinds of Silos. — There are a great many kinds of silos. 
They may be built of concrete, of brick or lumber. There 
are agents in nearly every community who are advocating 
their particular kinds of silos. They quite often claim that 
other makes of silos than their own are not good. Many 

Experiment Stations, as well 
as farmers, have used all the 
common kinds of silos. When 
well made, they all have proved 
to be good. Good workman- 
ship is necessary in a silo, be- 
cause it must be air-tight, 
water-tight, have smooth walls, 
and be strong enough to with- 
stand great pressure from the 
silage, and also be able to with- 
stand the wind. Any silo that 
has these qualities will be found 
very satisfactory whether built 
of brick, wood or concrete. 

Cost of Silos. — The most 
common size of silo is one that 
will hold about 100 tons of 
silage. Such a silo will usually 
vary in cost 'from $200 to $500, 
depending quite largely on the 
materials used and the prices 
of materials and labor in the community. If a farmer buys 
a silo from a company making a business of seHing silos he will 
pay more for it than if he were to buy the materials and hire 
the building done, as is usually the case with other farm 
buildings. In other words, he can get a silo more cheaply 
by building it himself, because he saves the expense the 
silo company must stand in advertising and selling their 
silo; but for the extra money he pays for a patented silo, 
he is saved the bother of planning and is quite likely to get 
a good silo, because the silo company has usually built 




Figure 122. — A concrete block silo. 



AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING 277 

many silos and knows just how to do it. If a man is a 
good mechanic, or can hire a good mechanic who has 
had experience in building silos, he can usually save some 
money by buying his materials and building the silo him- 
self; but, if a good mechanic is not available, it is much 
better and safer to buy some good patented silo. 

Size of Silo. — Like other buildings, the silo must be 
planned to fit the needs of the farm. A cow will eat from 
30 to 40 lbs. of silage per day. Other animals, like calves, 
sheep, steers, etc., will eat about the same amount in propor- 
tion to their weight. Ten 100-lb. sheep, one 1,000-lb. 
steer, or four 250-lb. calves will eat about the same amount 
of silage as a 1,000-lb. cow. One can tell about the number 
of animals on the farm and the number of days during the 
year they must be fed, and from that determine the number 
of tons of silage Kkely to be needed. There are plenty of 
books and bulletins that give the capacity of various sized 
silos, or one can figure out the approximate capacity quite 
easily by finding the number of cubic feet in the silo and 
multiplying this by 40, as a cubic foot of silage will weigh 
about 40 pounds. It is advisable to build a silo sufficiently 
large. A tall, narrow silo is more satisfactory than a low, 
wide one, because the deeper the silage the more it becomes 
packed on account of the pressure. The more silage is 
packed the better it will keep. The top of the silage in a 
silo is always exposed. If a silo is narrow there is less sur- 
face exposed. 
Questions: 

1. What is a silo? 

2. What are some of the advantages of a silo? 

3. Name as many different kinds of silos as you can. 

4. What can you say about the proper size of silo to build? 
Arithmetic: 

1. If a silo costs $332.50 and holds 95 tons of silage, how much 
does it cost per ton capacity? 

2. A man has 20 cows that will eat 35 lbs. of silage per day each. 
How many tons of silage will he need to feed these cows 200 days? 

3. If an acre of corn produces 9 tons of silage, how many cows 
will it feed for 200 days, at the rate of 30 lbs. of silage per day? 

FENCING 

Kinds of Fences. — Fences of some description are found 
on nearly every farm. Sometimes these fences are in such 



278 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 




poor condition that they are very Httle improvement to a 
farm, while on other farms they are straight, well built, 
well kept and a very great addition to the farm both in 
usefulness and in appearance. 

Fences are used to keep stock either in or out of j&elds. 

Formerly fences were 
made of rails, but of late 
years timber is more 
scarce and other fencing 
material is being used. 
Barbed wire and woven 
wire are now compara- 
tively cheap, easily put 
up, and so effective in 
enclosing stock that prac- 
tically all fencing is of 
this material, even in 
timbered sections where 
rails are plentiful. 

Fence Posts. — There 
is a great number offence 
posts used every year, and, as timber becomes scarce, posts 
become more and more expensive. There are many different 
kinds of timber used for fence posts, and they vary in value 
according to their durability. Some kinds of posts will 
last from ten to twenty years before they rot, while other 
kinds will become useless in three or four years. As a rule, 
posts that last well are made of slow-growing timber, such 
as oak or cedar, while quick-growing timber, such as willow 
and Cottonwood, rots very quickly when placed in the soil. 
Posts deteriorate when set in the ground, by rotting. 
They usually rot off just below the surface of the ground, 
because here the soil keeps them moist and the air gets in 
from the surface, thus making conditions favorable for 
rotting. The top of the post does not rot, as it dries off 
too quickly, and the bottom of the post does not rot, be- 
cause the soil keeps the air away from it. 

A process -has been discovered by which wooden posts 
may be treated with creosote and thus made to last two or 
three times as long as when untreated. This process is 



Figure 123. — A poorly-braced corner post 
from which it is impossible to stretch wires 
that will remain tight. 



AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING 279 

to dip the posts (or the part that is to go into the ground) 
in a vat of hot creosote. The creosote soaks into the wood 
and keeps them from rotting. 

Cement Posts. — Cement is now used for making posts, 
by mixing it with sand and water, then tamping it into 
molds of the proper shape. Such posts are very serviceable 
and get better the longer they stand. The only way in 
which they are injured is by breaking them. To prevent 
this, strips of wire are usually put inside of the posts as the 
mortar is being put into the molds. Cement posts are not 
in general use, as few persons have learned to make them. 
The first cost of cement posts is higher than for wooden 
posts. They axe heavy to handle and some httle difficulty 




Figure 124. — A well-braced corner post that will always remain perpendicular and 
hold the wire tight. 

is found in fastening the wire to them; but, considering 
their durability, they are not expensive and will probably 
be used to a great extent as their value becomes better known. 

Steel posts are now used to some extent and will prob- 
ably be used more than at present as timber becomes scarce 
and as more permanent fences are built. 

Investment in Fences. — Fencing is done entirely for live 
stock, hence the cost should be charged against them. 
Fencing intelligently done offers a good investment, but 
sometimes fences arc built when they should not be. Unless 



280 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

there is sufficient live stock on the farm to require good 
fences, and unless the live stock are of such quality as to 
yield a profit from good feed, fences are not a profitable 
investment. 

The larger the fields fenced, the smaller the amount of 
fencing required per acre, hence it costs less for fencing, 
if one has enough cattle to use a large pasture than when 
one has only a few head that can use only a small amount 
of pasture. Figure this out for yourself. 

Investing money in fences is different from investing it 
in land, because fences deteriorate each year and after ten 
or twelve years must be replaced. If one invests $10 in 
land, it is probable the land will always be worth $10 or 
more, and the only cost each year is the interest on the 
investment. If one invests $10 in fences, the cost of the 
fence each year is interest on the investment and whatever 
depreciation there may be. If the fence lasts ten years, 
it is worth $1 less each year. Thus, to be a paying invest- 
ment, the fence must earn about $1.60 per year to pay its 
cost, while the land must earn but 60c. per year. 
Questions: 

1. What is the chief use of fences? 

2. Of what are they usually made now? 

3. Upon what does the value of fence posts depend? 

4. By what process are wooden posts made more durable? 

5. Why must an investment in fences be regarded differently 
from an investment in land? 

Arithmetic: 

1. How many acres of land in a field 40 rods wide by 120 rods 
long? How many rods of fencing are required to enclose it? How 
many rods of fencing are required per acre? 

2. How many acres of land in a field 80 rods square? How 
many rods of fencing are required to enclose it? How many rods of 
fencing are required per acre? 

3. If fencing costs 25c. per rod and lasts ten years, what is the 
annual cost per rod? (Figure 6% interest on 25c. and add to it 1-10 
of the cost of the fence.) How much is the annual cost per acre of 
such a fence, if 10% rods are required to enclose an acre? 

BUILDING FENCES 

Good Workmanship. — In building fences, hke most 
other kinds of work, a man can show whether or not he is 
a good workman. If one sees straight, well built and well 



AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING 281 

kept fences on a farm, one expects, and is very likely to find, 
other things on that farm orderly and properly done. A 
fence often remains in place for many years. If it is crooked, 
it is an eyesore all those years. If it is straight and well 
kept, it is a constant source of satisfaction to the owner 
and to all who see it. 

Comer Posts. — Barbed wire fences have been the cause 
of so much injury to animals that many farmers are strongly 
opposed to them. The greatest cause of injury to live stock 
is slack wires. These are not found where the wires have 
been properly stretched when the fence was built. In order 
to stretch wire tight it is necessary to have the corner posts 
set and braced firmly, so they cannot give and thus allow 
the wire to slacken. With corner posts set as in Figure 123, 
it is impossible to keep the wire tight; but, when they are 
set and braced as in Figure 124, they will always remain 
firm and keep the wire tight. Observe fences in your 
neighborhood and note those that have well braced corners. 

Setting Posts. — Posts are usually set by digging holes 
with a post auger or digger, setting in the posts and tamp- 
ing the earth firmly about them. It is especially important 
to tamp the earth very firm about the bottom of the post 
and just at the surface of the ground, as these are the two 
places on which the strain comes. Corner posts often need 
short pieces of plank spiked on them near the bottom, to 
keep the strain of the wire from pulling them out of the 
ground. See Figure 125. 

Woven Wire. — Woven wire makes a much more desir- 
able fence than barbed wire, as there is no danger of animals' 
being injured in it and it will serve for hogs and sheep as 
well as for cattle and horses. It is considerably more ex- 
pensive than barbed wire, especially if only cattle are to 
be enclosed. 

Stretching Wire. — If corner posts are firmly set, it is 
comparatively easy to stretch either barbed or woven wire. 
The wire is fastened firmly to the post at one end of the 
line, then strung out and stretched. A great deal of time 
can be saved by arranging to reel out two wires at once. 
To do this, put two spools of wire side by side on a rod or 
crowbar in the rear end of the wagon, fasten the two wires 



282 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



and drive ahead, the same as when stretching one wire. 
Always stretch the top wire first, as you thus avoid tangling 
when the other wires are stretched. 

There are several good wire stretchers on the market. 
If one has no other means handy, barbed wire can be well 
stretched by bracing a wagon, blocking up one hind wheel 
and winding the wire about the hub by turning the wheel 
by hand. A stretcher especially made for the purpose is 
necessary for stretching woven wire. 

Cost of Fencing. — Any farmer should be able to tell 
approximately how much it costs to build any of the com- 
mon fences on his farm. It is the annual cost per acre 
that is important. To find this, one must first take into 

consideration the num- 
ber of rods of fencing re- 
quired to enclose an acre. 
This, of course, varies 
with the size and shape 
of the fields. The cost 
of posts and wire is 
known, because they are 
usually purchased. If 

Figure 125 —A corner post braced one way postS are CUt OR the farm, 
and anchored so the strain of the wires 7, ^ /• j_i- ji 

will not pull it out. the cost 01 gcttmg them 

out will represent their 
cost. Labor cost in setting posts and stretching wire can 
be found by experience or by asking others who have built 
fences under similar conditions. When one knows the total 
cost per rod for a fence, and the number of rods required 
to enclose an acre, one can tell the total cost per acre. 
Questions: 

1. For what reasons should corner posts be well braced? 

2. Describe an easy method of stretching wire. 

3. In what way may one determine the cost per rod of fencing? 

4. If one knows the cost per rod, how can one tell the annual 
cost per rod? Per acre? 

Arithmetic: 

1. How many posts are required to build 80 rods of fence, posts 
13^ rods apart? Wliat are they worth at 12c. per post? What is the 
cost per rod for posts? 

2. How many pounds of barbed wire are required to build 80 
rods of 3-wire fence? (A single barbed wire 1 rod long weighs about 




AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING 283 

1 lb.) What is the cost at 3c. per pound? What is the cost of such 
a fence per rod for wire? 

3. A man can set 50 posts in 10 hours. How long will it take 
him to set the posts in 80 rods of fence, if posts are 13^ rods apart? 
What wiU it cost, if his time is worth 18c. per hour? What is the cost 
per rod? 

4. Two men and a team (2 horses) can string, stretch and staple 
80 rods of fence (3 barbed wires) in 5 hours. What will it cost if a 
man's time is worth 18c. per hour and a horse's time is worth 9c. per 
hour? What will it cost per rod? 

5. What, then, is the total cost per rod to build a fence as above? 
(Include posts, setting of posts, wire and stretching of wire, as found 

I in above examples.) 

Exercises: 

1. Each pupil should describe the road from his home to his county 
seat and tell what he thinks should be done to improve it. 

2. Make a map of a farm, showing directior of flow of water 
and indicating places that may need drainage. 

3. Make a list of every piece of machinery on your farm. State 
what it cost, what it probably costs a year for repairs and how long 
it is likely to last. Average the total cost. 

4. Each pupil should describe what he regards as the best barn 
in the district and tell what particular features commend it. 

5. How many different kinds of silos are in the district and what 
kinds of silage are stored in them? 

6. Notice the fences you see, in what respects they are good 
and how also they are poor and might be improved. 



CHAPTER XXI 
COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES 

BOTS' AND GIRLS' CLUBS 

Importance. — Boys' and girls' clubs are becoming an 
important factor in the teaching of industrial subjects in 
both rural and city schools. A club tends to capitalize or 
at least make use of the combined interest and enthusiasm 
that comes from team play. It also makes use of one of 
the most important principles in education which is to find 
some means of arousing in the student a feehng that he 
needs or wants information that it is desired to impart to 
him. The average student can learn a thing that he feels 
that he needs at the time to know much more quickly than 
he can learn the same thing when he does not need the 
information at the time, and feels that it is more or less 
useless. The club undertakes to do something, and each 
member agrees to do his part. Each one is encouraged to 
go on with the work, because he knows others are doing it, 
and are expecting him to do it. Having before him a task 
that he wants to accomplish, he is receptive for anything 
that will help him to accomplish it. A bit of information 
or help just at the right time is appreciated and used. 

Schools are the natural centers for boys' and girls' clubs 
and their activities. The teacher is the natural leader, and 
can be very helpful in organizing and directing the club. 
The club can be of immense help to the teacher. It helps 
to add to the school spirit and loyalty; it teaches citizen- 
ship and aids in discipline; it furnishes the needed stimulus 
to study; it helps to connect the school with the activities 
of the home, and shows the boys and girls that things learned 
in school are associated with and useful in everyday life. 

Teachers are not all qualified, or feel that they are not, 
to teach some of the industrial subjects that are now quite 
generally required in schools; but the average rural school 
teacher is now qualified to teach elementary agriculture and 
need not hesitate to take up and study with boys and girls 



COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES 



285 



the rules and instructions now available in every state in 
the Union regarding the acre-yield corn contests, the bread- 
baking contest, the tomato-growing and canning contest, 
or the pig, calf or poultry contest. Reading over these 
instructions with her club members and helping them to 
understand them will maintain interest and give assistance 




Figure 126. — A boys' and girls' farm club. 

to the club members in their meetings and other activities. 
The instructions given in connection with the various club 
activities outhne simply and clearly the best known farm 
practices for the community or state, practices that are 
usually better than the average for the community. The 
club provides a means for studying these instructions and 
for putting them into practice. When boys or girls have 
carried out the instruction given for the club project, they 
have accomplished something exceptional, and have learned 
important facts that will be useful to them as long as they live. 

18— 



286 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



Time is limited in rural schools, but a good live boys' 
and girls' club tends to make better use of the time rather 
than to take valuable time needed for other classes. The 
club usually meets Friday afternoon once or twice a month. 
The time is put to good use, and it encourages so much 
work outside school hours that the time spent in study is 
increased rather than lessened. A great deal of the club 
work requires reading, composition writing and arithmetic, 
which subjects are better taught in connection with the 
club activities, because the pupils actually use them. 




Figure 127. — A girls' sewing club. 

Prizes. — Most of the club work has been based on prizes. 
There is a growing tendency to do away with prizes, 
or at least with large prizes. Most pupils will compete as 
strenuously for a club pin or a blue ribbon in a club project 
as they will for a "headmark" in spelling or a reward of 
merit for good behavior. 

Object Acre. — Instead of large cash prizes, it has been 
suggested that the boys and girls in a community decide 
on something they would each like to do, such as to make 
a trip to the State Fair, take a sight-seeing trip to Niagara 
or Yellowstone, or take a term or course at some institution 
of learning. When the thing to be desired is determined 
upon by the club, then each member undertakes to produce 



COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES 287 

a yield of sufficient value on a given piece of ground to 
pay his expenses. In this way each member has a chance 
to win. If he wins, he earns his own prize; if he loses, he 
can try again next year. 

The value of boys' and girls' club work can hardly be 
overestimated. It is easily adapted to the needs or interests 
of a community, is easily put into operation, because boys 
and girls are naturally hopeful and enthusiastic and it very 
naturally works into the activities of the school. We feel 
that every teacher in grade or rural schools should give 
very careful thought to this work. A suggestive constitu- 
tion and by-laws are submitted. 

CONSTITUTION 
Article I. Name 

The name of this organization shall be 

Boys' and Girls' Club. 

Article II. Object 
The object of this club shall be to improve ourselves, our school, 
our homes, and our community. 

Article HI. Membership 
Any boy or girl in this district between the ages of 10 and 18 
years may become a member of this club by signing the constitution. 
Article IV. Officers 
The officers shall consist of a president, vice-president, secretary, 
and treasurer, who shall perform the usual duties of such officers. 
Article V. Meetings 
The regular meetings shall be held at the schoolhouse the last Fri- 
day of each month during the school term, unless otherwise voted. 
Article VI. Amendments 
This constitution may be amended at any regular meeting by a 
two-thirds vote cast. 

By-Laws 
Section 1. The club motto shall be "To make the Best Better." 
Section 2. The officers of the club shall be elected by ballot at 
the first regular meeting of each school term, and shall hold office 
until their successors have been elected and qualified. 

Section 3. The following order of busmess shall be followed at 
regular club meetings: 

Roll call by secretary. 

Reading of minutes of previous meeting. 

Reports of committees. 

Unfinished business. 

New business. 

Program. 

Adjournment. 



288 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

Questions: 

1. What are some of the things a boys' and girls' club may do? 

2. Why should boys' and girls' clubs be promoted by the school? 

3. What do you think of the idea of the object acre? What 
could you grow that would enable you to take a trip to the State Fair? 

Arithmetic: 

1. If one produced 100 bus. of corn per acre and sold 25 bus. for 
seed at $3 per bushel, and the balance at 45c. per bushel, what would 
be the total value of the crop? 

2. If one produced 300 bus. of onions on 14 acre, how much 
would they be worth at 60c. per bushel? 

3. If one produced 200 bus. of potatoes per acre on 5 acres, and 
sold them at 50c. per bushel, how much money would one have? 

FARMERS' CLUBS 

A Farmers' Club is an organization of the people in any- 
community for the improvement of themselves, their homes 
and their community. It should include in its member- 
ship the whole family, men, women and children. Two or 
more families may constitute a successful farmers' club; 
but it is best, where possible, to include all the people in 
the community. A rural school district is a suitable terri- 
tory to be covered by a farmers' club. Meetings are held 
in the homes of the members, in town halls or in school- 
houses. There are many advantages in having the meet- 
ings at the homes of the members wherever it is practical 
to do so. The territory should be small enough so that all 
its members can easily convene. 

Advantages. — A good, active farmers' club will do for 
a rural community just what a good, active commercial 
club will do for a village or city; namely, it will tend to 
secure the united influence of the community to bring about 
any desired improvement, and, further, it will unite the 
community to oppose anything that is not for its best 
interests. We can conceive of no way in which a farniers' 
club can be detrimental to a community, while we beheve 
that there are at least four ways in which it may be help- 
ful: (1) socially, (2) educationally, (3) inspirationally, and 
(4) financially. 

Social Advantages. — People are essentially social beings. 
They are not usually happy when isolated, and do not 
develop properly except in groups. Life on the farm tends 
to keep people too much to themselves. A farmers' club 



COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES 28d 

that will bring the peojilo together monthly or semi-monthly 
furnishes a very desira])le change from the ordinary routine 
of farm life. Every one is interested in making the most 
of oneself and one's life. An important part of one's pleasure 
and development comes from meeting people and gaining 
the ability to mingle with them freely, without which one 
cannot appear at one's best or get the most out of Ufe, 
either socially or in a business way. 

One needs to get away from one's own work and home 
and get an opportunity to see things from a different 
angle. As a rule, a man is better satisfied with his own 
conditions when he sees how others live and do. A better 
acquaintance with people usually results in more tolerance 
for their shortcomings. Many times, when left to ourselves, 
we begin to think unkindly of our neighbors and really 
believe they are not what they should be. Usually a closer 
acquaintance and a clearer knowledge of their trials and 
struggles shows us that they are really better than we had 
thought them to be. A community in which all are inter- 
ested in one another, know one another, and are boosting 
for one another and for the community, is a much better 
place in which to live than a community in which there is 
mutual distrust. As a rule, knowledge of one another 
increases confidence. Play is an important part of one's 
life. One cannot do one's best, if every minute is devoted 
to work. Relaxation and pleasure are absolutely essential 
to good Hving. Clubs that will bring some entertainment, 
social gatherings, or other means of amusement into the 
community, are very important. 

Educational Advantages. — A good farmers' club may be 
of the greatest possible influence in broadening the knowledge 
of its members. The community has more information 
than any one of its members, and the club meeting tends 
to give each member the benefit of the knowledge and ex- 
perience of every other member. 

Being called upon to present various topics at club 
meetings stimulates study. No one farm or community 
has in it all that is good. Being forced to study what is 
being done in other places increases the general knowledge 
of the community and of each individual therein. 

10— 



290 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



A farmers' club may increase the general knowledge of 
its members by bringing in outside talent. Business and 
professional men from the nearby towns or villages can be 
prevailed upon to address the club. Speakers from the 
University or the College of Agriculture and other public 
institutions may be secured occasionally to bring in outside 
ideas and inspiration. 

Inspiration. — A discussion of the various problems of 
interest to the community always tends to stimulate every 
good, live citizen to desire better things, and to make a 




Figure 128. — A co-operative laundry in connection with a co-operative creamery. 

greater effort to secure them. Anyone who has confidence 
in people and in the community believes that almost all good 
things are possible, if the necessary effort and determination 
are put forth to secure them. If a club can succeed in 
arousing in its members a desire and determination for 
improvement in the community, better schools, better roads, 
better homes, better live stock, better farms, and better 
people are all possible. 

Financial Advantages. — Business is now done in this 
country on a large scale. Millions of dollars and thousands 



COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES 291 

of people are used in great enterprises. A farmer usually 
deals with people representing business interests larger than 
his own. As a rule, in business enterprises he deals with 
men who have the advantage, simply because the trans- 
action means more to the farmer than to the other fellow 
with his wider field. For example, a potato buyer in a 
community may buy potatoes from two hundred farmers. 
What is 100 per cent of the farmer's business in potatoes 
represents one half of one per cent of the potato buyer's 
business. Consequently, a deal that means 100 per cent 
to the farmer means one half of one per cent to the potato 
buyer, and because the deal means very little to the buyer 
and very much to the farmer, the farmer is at a disadvan- 
tage. Exactly the same condition prevails in purchasing 
supplies. The farmer is handicapped on account of the 
small amount of business he is doing. A farmer who can 
use two dozen machines of one kind can purchase them 
more cheaply than the man who uses but one. The farmer 
who can sell many carloads of farm products of one class 
can get a better price for his products than the one who has 
only a wagonload or less to market. 

If the products of a community, such as grain, potatoes 
and live stock, can be made uniform b}^ co-operation among 
the members of the community in production, and then 
these larger quantities of uniform products can be sold by 
one man, the same advantages that come to the large 
farmer, or have come to the dairy industry, can be secured 
in other enterprises on the farm. 

Co-operation. — A fanners' club is the logical forerunner 
of co-operation. In the first place, it gets the people of a 
community acquainted and increases the confidence of one 
in another. This mutual confidence is absolutely essential 
to successful co-operation. In the second place, it provides 
a logical means for studying carefully any enterprise that 
it is proposed to undertake co-operatively, so that 
impractical undertakings are likely to be avoided. We be- 
lieve the farmers' club is a vital factor in promoting co- 
operation, because it is not organized to defeat any particular 
class of people, but to study intelligently any problem that 
may come up, and to execute it effectively. 



292 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

SUGGESTED CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS 

Article I. Name and Object 

Section 1. Tiie name of this association shall be the Farmers' 
Club of.. 

Section 2. The object of this association shall be to improve its 
members, their farms, and their community. 

Article II. Membership 

Section 1. Anyone in good standing may become a member of 
this club by paying the annual fee of $ 

Section 2. When the head of a family joins the club any member 
of his family may become an active member without paying additional 
fees. 

Section 3. One third of the active members shall constitute a 
quorum for doing business at any regular meeting. 
Article III. Officers 

Section 1. The officers of this association shall consist of a presi- 
dent, a vice president, a secretary, and a treasurer. They shall be 
chosen for their business ability rather than their popularity. 

Section 2. The officers of the club become the executive board 
and shall constitute the program committee. 

Section 3. The executive board may call a special metting at 
any time by giving three days' written notice. 

Section 4. The officers of this association shall be elected annu- 
ally, and by ballot, at the regular annual business meeting, and shall 
hold office until their successors have been elected and qualified. 

Article IV. Meetings 

The club shall hold an annual meeting the 

Regular meetings of this club shall be held on the of 

each month at the home of some member or at such place as shall be 
designated at a previous meeting, or by the executive board. 
Article V. Amendments 

This constitution may be amended at any regular meeting by a 
two thirds vote of the active members. 

By-Laws 

Section 1. The duties of each officer named in the constitution 
shall be such as usually pertain to his position. 

Section 2. All other duties shall be performed by the executive 
and program committees. 

Section 3. The club shall aid and further business associations 
among its members; particularly such associations as pertain to the 
purchase of necessary supplies, and the purchase and management of 
live stock and agricultural and garden products. 

Section 4. From time to time the club shall give entertainments 
and hold meetings under direction of the program committee, for the 
benefit of its members and of those whom they may invite to attend. 

Section 5. Any members, after due hearing, may be expelled 
from the club by a majority vote of active members at any meeting, 
without a refund of dues. 



COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES 293 

Section 6. These by-laws may be amended at any regular meet- 
ing by a majority vote of active members upon one month's written 
notice. 

Questions: 

1. What is a farmers' club? Name at least four ways in which 
a club may be helpful in a community. 

2. How may a farmers' club benefit a community socially? 

3. How may a farmers' club benefit a commimity educationally? 

Arithmetic: 

1. If there are 200 farms tributary to a town, each worth $12,000 
what is their combined worth? 

2. If 200 farms tributary to a town produce $1,500 worth of 
farm products, what is the total value of the products to be marketed? 

3. If each of 200 farms purchase $1,000 of supplies, what is the 
total amount of their purchases? 

CO-OPERATION 

Meaning of Co-operation. — Every farm girl and boy 
should know the meaning of the term co-operation and 
realize its full significance. Co-operation means united 
effort or, as Prof. J. A. Vye has put it, "Union of the powers 
of the common people for the common good." The very 
best example we have of true and ideal co-operation is in 
the family. Here each member works for the common 
good, makes sacrifices for the rest, and shares in the joys 
and successes of the other members. In our business rela- 
tions with neighbors and friends we cannot expect such 
complete co-operation. But, under present conditions of 
business, it is possible for people to co-operate or work 
together to their mutual advantage, even if they are prompt- 
ed only by advantage to themselves and are without the 
generous desire to help others. 

Obstacles to Co-operation. — One of the great obstacles 
to co-operation among farmers is the old notion that a 
farmer is the most independent man on earth. The farmer 
is independent in some ways. He is his own employer, 
may go to work an hour late or quit an hour early occasion- 
ally without asking anyone's permission; but he is dependent 
on others to buy his products; and, to get his supplies, he 
is dependent on manufacturers, transportation companies 
and merchants. 

Need of Co-operation. — In the majority of cases the 
weaker of two persons making a trade comes out second 



2'M ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

best. The farmer, in selling his products and in buying his 
supplies, usually deals with large concerns; consequently 
he very often gets the worst of the bargain. This result is 
but natural, for the business of the average farmer amounts 
to but very little to the buyer of stock or grain, and, while 
the sale may mean a great deal to the farmer, it means 
very little to the buyer. Likewise, a dealer selling machin- 
ery, lumber or other supplies does not care a great deal 
about the business of one farmer, but the farmer is often 
under the necessity of buying of that particular dealer. 
In such cases it is quite evident that the farmer is at a 
disadvantage. 

Advantages of Co-operation. — If, however, several farm- 
ers unite and offer for sale a large amount of grain, stock, 
or other products, there is business enough represented in 
handling this product to attract several buyers, and, as a 
consequence, a better price is obtained. Likewise, if a 
number of farmers find that they need among them several 
machines of different kinds (probably a few thousand dollars' 
worth) and they go to a dealer to buy, he is anxious to get 
the large order and will make some reduction in price in 
order to get it. Such combination of interests tends to 
equalize the strength on the two sides of the bargain, and, 
as a consequence, to equalize the benefits of the trade. 

Co-operative Production. — Not only can farmers get 
better prices for the same product by selling in large quanti- 
ties, but they can also offer, by working together, products 
that are worth much more. For example, if several farmers 
are raising horses, they can get better prices for them, if 
they all raise horses of the same type and breed. It is 
easier in such a case for a purchaser to get a matched team, 
and where several horses can be bought in one neighborhood, 
a buyer can afford to pay a better price for them than he 
could if he had to search several neighborhoods, because he 
is saved the time and expense of searching. 

There are great possibilities for farmers to benefit them- 
selves materially by closer co-operation in many of their 
farming and business enterprises. Several farmers working 
together greatly increase their own strength and resources, 
and better equip themselves to meet existing conditions. 



COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES 295 

They can put on the market large quantities of superior 
and uniform products in such condition and quantity as to 
assure top prices. 
Questions: 

1. What do you understand "co-operation" to mean? 

2. Where is the best example of co-operation found? 

3. What is a great obstacle to co-operation among farmers? 

4. Why does a farmer trading with a large concern often get the 
worst of the bargain? 

5. Why are a number of farmers, buying or selling together 
almost sure to get better prices? 

6. Why can a buyer afford to pay more when large and uniform 
quantities of any one thing can be found in a neighborhood? 
Arithmetic: 

1. Thirty farmers want $100 worth of machinery each. How 
many dollars' worth of machinery do they all want? How much 
would they save, if they could get 10% discount? If they could get 
20% discount? 

2. A cattle buyer, to get a carload of cattle, spends 3 days, 
paying $5 per day for livery and |2 per day for hotel accommodations. 
His time is worth $5 per day. How much does it cost him in time and 
expense? How much does this expense amount to per head, if he 
buys 18 head? 

3. If a car of uniform cattle, weighing 24,000 lbs., sell for 50c. 
per 100 lbs. more than mixed cattle, how much more are the}' worth 
than a car of mixed cattle? 

MARKETING BUTTER 

Co-operative Creamery. — One of the best examples of 
co-operation among farmers, in the Northwest, is the co- 
operative creamery; and the results should be sufficient to 
encourage effort along other lines. 

Before the introduction of the co-operative creamery, 
every farm made its own butter. In most cases poor 
facilities were at hand for the work, and, as a consequence, 
a product often not first-class, and never uniform, was pro- 
duced. The result was that butter sold at a very low price, 
often 6c. to 10c. per pound. IMany farmers produced good 
butter, but very few farms were so situated as to be able 
to sell their product for a good price. Few farms had a 
constant or uniform supply of butter. It was impossible 
for a merchant to work up a trade for the product from a 
certain farm or of a certain quality, because he could not 
be sure of getting the butter for any definite length of time. 



J96 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



The result of this condition was that merchants in the 
small towns paid about the same price for all butter, 
mixed it and sold it at a low price. Consequently they 
could afford to pay but a low price for it. 

Principles of Marketing. — There are three conditions 
which have a tendency to increase the price of a staple 
product, and, as these conditions are well illustrated by 
our creameries, we mention them here. 

A large quantity of a desirable product in one place 
attracts several buyers, thus increasing competition and the 




Figure 129. — A farmers' co-operative creamery where a large quantity of a uniform 
product is produced and offered for sale in an attractive and business-like manner. 

price. A uniformly good product and a constant supply 
enables a dealer to build up a demand for something good; 
hence he can pay a better price for it. Bringing the buyer 
to the product, instead of sending the product to the buyer, 
tends to increase the price, because it enables the seller to 
refuse the price offered and wait for a better offer, which he 
can not always do, if he has delivered his product. 

The average co-operative creamery produces from 
$20,000 to $50,000 worth of butter in a year. This amount 
naturally attracts buyers who are anxious to handle the 
large product. Creameries turn out a fairly uniform quality 
of butter, which qualification has been a very strong factor 
in increasing the demand and the price for creamery butter. 



COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES 297 

On account of the large and uniform product, buyers come 
or send to the creamery; consequently the creamery manager 
can sell or hold the product in the refrigerator until he gets 
the offer he regards as fair. These same principles hold 
true in the marketing of any farm product. 

Why Some Creameries Fail. — That a well managed and 
well patronized co-operative creamery can compete success- 
fully with any other known plant, in the manufacture of 
butter, has been amply proved. Still there are now many 
creameries that are being injured, and a few of them closed, 
by the competition of the large privately owned creameries 
called "centralizers." These "centraUzers" have their cream 
shipped from any place they can get it. To get cream 
where there is a local creamery, they may offer a better 
price than the local creamery can pay, or they may get cream 
at the same price from a few of its dissatisfied patrons. 

Losing any considerable amount of cream greatly weak- 
ens the local plant, and it cannot pay as much for butter- 
fat as it had been paying, because the butter maker's salary 
and other expenses must be paid out of a smaller output. 
Thus the local plant is forced to run at a loss or to close. 

Support Local Creamery. — The closing of the local 
creamery would not be so undesirable, if the centralizers 
continued to pay good prices for cream; but they cannot as 
a rule continue to pay as good prices as a well managed 
and well patronized co-operative plant, because they have 
difficulty in getting cream of as good quality as the co-op- 
erative creamery can obtain; and consequently cannot make 
as uniformly good butter. 

It generally happens that when the local creamery is 
closed, the centralizer, being relieved of competition, re- 
duces the price paid for cream below that paid by the best 
co-operative plants. 

For their own interests as well as the interests of the 
community, it pays patrons of a co-operative creamery to 
stand by their own plant and not be lured away by tempor- 
ary high prices, or high tests, or by jealousy and spite; for 
the chances are that, as soon as the local creamery is closed, 
they will get less for butter-fat than their own creamery 
can pay them, if they patronize it. 



298 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

Questions: 

1. What was the cause of the low price formerly paid for butter? 

2. Give the three principles of successful marketing. 

3. Why does a co-operative creamery sometimes fail? 
Arithmetic: 

1. If a farmer keeps 12 cows and each produces }4 lb. of butter- 
fat per day, how many pounds of butter-fat will he get per week? 
How many pounds of 25% cream wiU he get per week? (1 lb. of butter- 
fat will make 4 lbs. of 2.5% cream.) 

2. How much should a farmer receive, if he sells 168 lbs. of 25% 
cream at 30c. per pound for butter-fat? 

3. How much less would he receive per week for his 168 lbs. 
of cream, if he were paid but 27c. per pound for butter-fat? If he 
lost $1.26 per week, how much would he lose in 1 year? 

4. How much less would he receive, if he were paid 30c. per 
pound, but his 168 lbs. of cream tested but 22% butter-fat? 

MARKETING EGGS 

Fresh Eggs Scarce in Cities. — It is no easy matter for 
people in town to secure good, fresh eggs whenever they 
want them. Thousands in every large city are willing to 
pay good, and even fancy prices for eggs, if they can be sure 
of getting a strictly first-class article. 

How Eggs Are Marketed. — The common way of hand- 
ling eggs is about as follows : Eggs are gathered at irregular 
intervals, then about once a week they are taken to town 
and sold or traded to a grocer, who pays one price for all 
kinds of eggs — white, brown, small, large, dirty or clean — 
and mixes them all together. Some of these eggs are one 
day old and some are two weeks or more old. The mer- 
chant sets them in his storeroom with ill-smelling materials, 
as meats, oils, etc., and some of these odors are absorbed 
by the eggs. This mixed case, with other similar cases, is 
then sent to a commission merchant, who may sell them to 
a city grocer at once or store them. After more or less 
delay these eggs are offered for sale to city people, and it 
is little wonder that the housekeeper hesitates to buy them. 

One Man's Experience. — A poultry man living near a 
large city sells all his eggs to a certain grocer. The eggs 
are gathered every day and the date stamped on each egg. 
Eggs of uniform size and color are put in small cartons or 
paper cases, holding one dozen each. The cartons are sealed 
with a label on which is printed a statement that the eggs 



CO MM UNI TY ACTI VI TIES 



299 




are guaranteed to be strictly fresh, and if any bad eggs are 
found the producer will replace them with good ones. These 
eggs are marketed every day, and sell readily at 35c. per 
dozen, when eggs marketed in the ordinary way are selling 
at 18c to 20c. per dozen. 

The Farmer's Problem. — Merchants who buy, handle 
and sell eggs are not to blame for the low price. It is the 

lack of uniformity, the 
unattractive appearance, 
and the suspicion that 
the eggs may not be 
fresh, that cause the low 
price. The farmer with 
a small flock of chickens 
can do very little to im- 
prove his markets alone, 
as he does not produce 
enough eggs to enable 
him to interest a grocer 
or to work up a special 
trade. This problem 
requires co-operation. 
Marketing Plan. — Sometimes eggs are marketed through 
the local creamery. Each patron having eggs to sell has 
a rubber stamp, with which he stamps on each egg the 
name of the local creamery and his own number, so that, 
in case the eggs are not good, they can be traced back to the 
right farm. Each patron delivers his eggs to the creamery 
with his cream. He must gather them every day, keep 
them in a cool, clean place, deliver no dirty eggs or eggs 
more than a week old. Thus the creameiy company can 
guarantee the eggs to be fresh, clean and attractive. Some 
have been shipping eggs in this way for years, direct to 
grocers in cities, who are glad to handle a high-class article. 
They have been able to pay their patrons from four to ten 
cents per dozen more than farmers get who market in the 
old way. 

Suggestions. — A co-operative creamery is an excellent 
center at which to deliver eggs, where several farmers are 
interested. 



Figure 130. — A neat, attrartive and conven- 
ient way to handle eggs. 



300 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

The young people in a community can get valuable 
experience and remuneration by taking the matter up and 
marketing eggs through the local creamery. 

When a hen lays an egg in a clean nest, it is a clean egg. 
The next hen coming to the nest may soil the first egg. 
Gather eggs often. 



THIS PACKAGE CONTAINS 

One Dozen Guaranteed Fresh Eggs 

IDEALIA CREAMERY CO. 

Manufacturers and Dealers 

Eggs, Butter, Pasteurized Cream and Ice Cream 
TOWN STATE 



NOTE — Eggs in this package, if they have our trade mark on them, are guaranteed 
to be strictly fresh, [clean and full size, and if ever found otherwise, we wish you 
would do us the favor to report it, giving number found on the egg. 

IDEALIA CREAMERY CO. 



Figure 1.31. — Example of guarantee placed on each carton of eggs sold by the 
creamery plan described in the text. 

Grade eggs by size and color, and put in neat, clean 
cartons. Ship in good, strong cases direct to some good 
merchant in the nearest large city. Interest enough persons 
so that several cases can be shipped each time, and ship at 
least twice a week. 

Try to interest producers in one good breed of chickens. 
Eggs will be uniform and more attractive. 
Questions: 

1 . What can you say regarding the usual method of marketing 
eggs? 

2. Why is the marketing plan, suggested above, better than the 
old method? 

3. In what way may the people of a community market their 
eggs to get better results than by selling them to the local grocer? 
Arithmetic: 

1. If each farm produces 30 eggs per day, how many farms 
would be required to produce enough eggs each day to fill a 30-dozen 
case? 

2, How many farms, producing 30 eggs each per day, would 
be required to produce enough eggs, so that five cases, holding 30 doz. 
each, could be shipped three times a week? 



COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES 301 

3. If each farm produces 30 eggs per day, what would be the 
gain per day on each farm, if 5c. extra per doz. could be secured? If 
the extra trouble in keeping the eggs clean and neatly packing them 
takes 15 minutes each day, what rate per hour would a boy make for 
doing this work? 

SCHOOL GARDENS 

The school garden is a plat of ground in connection with 
the school, used by teachers and pupils for growing crops 
as a part of their school work. There are many who are 
enthusiastic about the school garden, and others who be- 
lieve it has only a limited place as a means of teaching 
agriculture. A few years ago much was done to encourage 
rural school teachers and principals of consolidated schools 
to maintain gardens in connection with their schools. Many 
earnest attempts were made to carry out the suggestion, 
but at present there are very few places where the work is 
continued. 

The advantages of the school garden are that it furnishes 
actual practice in the various operations necessary in the 
growing of crops. It tends to call the pupil's attention to 
many interesting and valuable facts about soils, plants, 
cultivation, also to insects and diseases affecting plants. It 
gives a practical trend to the agriculture taught in the 
school, and provides a means of teaching by doing. 

The disadvantages are that the conditions of cultivating 
the soil and handling the crops are entirely unnatural. It 
is difficult to get the soil in good condition on account of 
lack of manure, teams, implements, etc. Usually about 
June 1st when crops and weeds are growing rapidly, school 
is out and no one is left to care for the garden. By fall the 
garden is likely to be a patch of weeds, and to illustrate 
something not desirable rather than something valuable. 

Place for School Gardens. — In medium-sized and large 
towns, where there are many pupils from homes that do 
not or can not have gardens, and where a special agricultural 
instructor or gardener can be employed throughout the 
crop-growing season, there is a real need for school gardens. 
Under such conditions the school garden furnishes concrete 
illustration and practice in soil culture and the growing of 
crops that could be gotten in no other way, It also furn- 



302 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

ishes healthful, useful employment for a few hours each 
week to boys and girls who would otherwise be running the 
streets. With a capable instructor in charge, such a school 
garden may be very valuable as a field laboratory in con- 
nection with the regular classroom work, and may also be 
used to good advantage to furnish much material to be 
used in the classroom during the winter. 

Where Not Needed.— School gardens have very Kttle 
place in connection with rural schools, consolidated schools, 
or village schools where all of the pupils have gardens at 
home and some useful employment during vacation. Under 
such conditions the teacher or agricultural instructor can 
do more good by encouraging home gardens and by aiding 
the pupils in their garden work at home, than by attempting 
to handle a school garden. 
Arithmetic: 

1. What is a school garden? 

2. Name some of its advantages and disadvantages. 

3. Under what conditions are school gardens desirable? Where 
imdesirable? 

Arithmetic: 

1. How much does it cost to plow J^ acre of land, if it takes a 
man and 2 horses 1}4 hours to do it, assuming that a man's time is 
worth 20c. per hour and one horse's time is worth 10c. per hour? 

2. How much does it cost to spade up }4 acre of land, if it takes 
a man 20 hours to do it, a man's time being worth 20c. per hour? 

3. If one can raise 600 bus. of onions per acre, hov/ much can 
one raise on 1 square rod? (There are 160 sq. rds. in an acre.) How 
much would the onions be worth at 60c. per bushel? 

COUNTY AGENTS. 

A New Movement. — During the past few years a really 
new movement has been started known as the county agent 
movement. This is a valuable form of community work. 
It was started in the Southern part of the United States 
when the cotton boll weevil first made its appearance and 
threatened to destroy the whole cotton industry. The 
cotton planters appealed to the United States Department 
of Agriculture for assistance which was readily given. 
Men were sent into several communities, and gave the best 
assistance available in combating the pest. Their efforts 
were fruitful, so much so that other communities asked 
for the same help. 



COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES 303 

Funds. — The United States Department had not funds 
enough to enable them to extend the county agent work as 
rapidly as it was sought. Business men were quick to see 
the advantage to themselves and to the community in 
saving the cotton crop and readily donated money to 
supplement the United States Department funds. The work 
was rapidly extended and soon took on the form of county 
work, usually each county employing its own agent in co- 
opeiation with the United States Department of Agriculture 
and its State College of Agriculture. This work spread rap- 
idly over the South and later was started in the North, so 
that in 1915 there were about 1,500 county agents employed 
in the United States. 

The work of a county agent is varied. He is the joint 
representative of the people in a county, the State Col- 
lege of Agriculture and the United States Department of 
Agriculture. It is the agent's business to do everything he 
can for the improvement of agriculture, business and con- 
ditions of living in the county in which he is employed. 
He brings directly to the service of the farmers and others 
in the county the facilities of the two institutions they 
have created and are maintaining, namely, their own state Ex- 
periment Station and the United States Department of 
Agriculture. 

Local Information. — As an agent travels over a county he 
finds many men who are succeeding in their particular lines 
of work. One man has made a success of corn growing. 
Another has succeeded in fruit raising. Others have suc- 
ceeded with dairying, hogs, poultry or with beef cattle. 
The county agent with his thorough training and experience 
is able to study the methods of these successful men and to 
quickly determine the principles which have resulted in 
their successes. He is then in position to inform others of 
these successful methods, to suggest improvements in the 
general methods of farming in the county and in many 
cases induce farmers to visit the farms where the most suc- 
cessful methods are being practiced. 

The county agent must be a man thoroughly familiar 
with farm work and farm life from having lived and worked 
on a farm for years. He must be quite familiar with the 



304 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

work of the Colleges of Agriculture and of the United States 
Department of Agriculture. He must be a man who can 
meet people easily and win their confidence and he must 
also be a natural leader and organizer. 

A Community Movement. — The success of the county 
agent movement in any particular county depends a great 
deal on the ability of the man selected as agent, but it 
depends a great deal more on the people in the community 
who are back of the work. The work is bigger than any 
agent. It represents a desire and determination on the part 
of the people in a county to improve and an organized effort 
to accomplish their desire. Success in farming is becoming 
more and more dependent on the success of the whole com- 
munity. Good roads, good schools, good markets, good 
social conditions and in fact good facilities for the improve- 
ment of live stock and other farm products can be had only 
by groups of people working together in an organized way. 

Questions: 

1. What can you say of the county agricultural agent movement 
in your state? 

2. Why is it important that the citizens of a county be organized 
before employing a county agricultural agent? 

3. In what ways may a county agent be of help to the farmers 
of a county? 

Arithmetic: 

1. If 100,000 acres of corn are grown in a county, how much is 
it worth to the county to have seed corn that will yield 1 bushel more 
per acre that the ordinary seed commonly used, if corn is worth 45c. 
per bushel? 

2. If by proper vaccination a county agent may save 2,000 
hogs in a county from loss by hog cholera, how much is saved, if each 
hog is worth .$12? 

Exercises: 

1. Boys and girls of each community should organize a boys' 
and girls' club, adopt a constitution, elect officers and take up some 
favorite work. 

2. What farmers' clubs are in the district? What are their ob- 
jects and advantages? Do any farmers not belong? Why? 

3. How are the farmers marketing their eggs? Can you sug- 
gest a better way? 

4. Does your school have a school garden? If not, do the pupils 
have home gardens of their own? Do they or do they not pay? How 
do you know? 

5. If your county has a county agricultural agent, what are some 
of the important things he is trying to do or have done? 



CHAPTER XXII 
THE FARM HOME 

WHAT A DESIRABLE HOME SHOULD BE 

Pleasant Surroundings. — Almost every one admires order, 
neatness and beauty in preference to their opposites — dis- 
order, untidiness and barrenness or lack of beauty. A farm 
seems more valuable, if the yards surrounding the house 
and barn are clean, neat and orderly. If one sees a smooth, 
well kept lawn, with a few appropriate shade trees and 
flowers, one feels sure that here is prosperity, or here, at 
least, is a restful home. 

In cities and villages considerable attention is paid to 
beautifying the lawns, and a very httle effort adds an ele- 
gance and charm to an otherwise plain home. 

Facilities. — The farm folk may not have much time to 
think how they would enjoy these things or to establish 
and keep such conditions, but there are many things that 
can be had with but little effort and expense, and many 
which the boys and girls can do. In the country, where 
there is plenty of room for a lawn, for flowers, ornamental 
shrubs and trees, and where good soil, fertilizer, team and 
machinery for keeping up a lawn are available, it is to be 
regretted that these possibilities are so little realized. 

Neatness. — The first step for the boys and girls, who 
are anxious to aid in beautifying their homes, is to keep 
things as neat as possible. Every boy of school age can 
move a pile of ashes, if the ashes during the winter have 
been piled too near the house. Raking the chip yard is 
not too difficult for the average boy. Often broken dishes, 
tin cans, old shoes, etc., have been cast into a pile some- 
where. These should be removed and buried. Frequently 
the banking about the house is left until late into the sum- 
mer, or only partly removed on account of frost when the 
work was begun. Persuasion from boys or girls might bring 
the team to the house at the close of a day's work, to re- 
liiove the banking or the remaining portion of it. 



306 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



The Lawns. — When neatness has been established, con- 
sider next the lawn. Many farmers have reasonably smooth 
lawns covered with good sod. If this is well burned over 
and thoroughly raked in the spring, it will not be difficult 
to keep it cut with a lawn mower all summer. The grass 
must be kept low or it will be difficult or perhaps impossible 
to cut it with a lawn mower. A lawn mower may sound 




Figure 132. — View of a pleasant farm home, showing good effects of lawn, 
vines and trees. 

like an extravagant article, but it is not expensive, consider- 
ing the number of years one may be run. 

Many farm yards are bare and packed hard from fre- 
quent travel. In such cases the aid of the father or "big 
brother" must be solicited to plow them up and perhaps 
grade them a little. If the soil is not rich enough, a few 
loads of manure and black earth might have to be hauled. 
The boys and girls can finish the work by thoroughly rak- 
ing the soil to prepare it for the seed. Blue grass alone is 
the most desirable lawn grass ; but, as this starts very slowly, 
it is well to mix with it some more rapid growing varieties, 
as white clover and redtop. Sow this mixture very thick, 
and rake again to cover the seed. Roll the lawn to make 
a smooth surface and give the seeds a better chance to start 
quickly. 



THE FARM HOME 307 

The lawn should be plowed and seeded early in time 
for the spring rains to start the grass. The farm lawns 
may suffer during a dry summer, but under ordinary condi- 
tions they will do well, if the soil is kept rich by an oc- 
casional dressing of well rotted manure. 

Desirable paths may be made of gravel or sand. 

A few good shade trees and ornamental shrubs add much 
to the appearance of a farm yard, and there is no reason 
why Arbor Day cannot be observed on the farms and many 
desirable trees set out. Soft maple makes a very beautiful 
shade tree and is of reasonably quick growth. The elm is 
a popular tree for the yard or driveway. The box elder is 
commonly used and makes very rapid growth. 

Modem conveniences in the home are now as easily 
available in the country as in the city. The septic tank 
provides just as satisfactory means for disposing of sewage 
as a sewer system. A septic tank may be built for a few 
dollars on any farm. Gasoline engines for pumping and 
pressure tanks or other systems of water supply are no 
more expensive in the country than in the city. These 
things make it entirely practical to have modern homes in 
the country and wherever such conveniences can be afforded 
they should be installed. They save work in the house 
just as much as improved machinery saves it in the fields. 
A modern home in which there is running water, a good 
heating plant and electric or gas hghts will do much to 
make the farm home attractive to both young and old. 
Questions: 

1. Give as many reasons as you can why a neat, orderly farm 
home is preferable. 

2. What is the first step in improving the appearance of a farm 
home? 

3. Tell what you can about starting a lawn. 

4. Write what you can about shade trees. 
Arithmetic: 

1. How many cubic yards of black earth are required ta cover a 
lawn 100 ft. square 1 in. thick? 

2. If it takes an hour to mow a lawn, 100 ft. square, and it must 
l)e mowed 18 times during the summer, how many hours of time are 
required? How much is this time worth at 1.5c. per hour? 

3. How far would one have to walk to mow a lawn 100 feet 
square, with a lawn mower that cuts a swath Hi inches wide? 



308 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

WINDBREAKS 

Value. — A good windbreak about a farm home is very 
valuable and is an inexpensive luxury. If there is a good 
windbreak about the buildings, less fuel is required to keep 
the house warm and the stable will be much warmer. Ani- 
mals must be kept warm during the winter either by shelter 
or by feed. If they are exposed to the cold winds or are 
kept in cold stables, they must have more feed. Feed is 
too expensive to be given merely to produce warmth. The 
shelter belt really saves feed, which is worth money. 

The windbreak also protects the orchard and garden 
from early frost, from storms, and from hot winds, making 
them much more likely to produce good crops. 

It is a great comfort to hay-makers and harvesters to 
get behind a good windbreak, on windy days, to unload 
hay or grain. Many times it is possible to finish stacking 
behind such shelter, when it would be impossible to handle 
the hay or grain out in the open. 

The windbreak makes the task of doing chores much 
pleasanter and easier during the winter than it would be 
if the buildings and yards were exposed. 

Kinds of Trees to Use. — There are many kinds of trees 
that make good windbreaks. The first requirement is that 
they be hardy — that is, will not kill out during the winter 
or during a dry summer; second, that they have a neat 
appearance and grow in such form that they really check 
the wind. 

In starting a new windbreak, trees that grow rapidly 
are, as a rule, used. The white and the golden willow, 
Cottonwood, Norway poplar, box elder, soft maple, etc., 
are some of the rapid-growing trees. These trees, if properly 
set out and cared for, will make a good windbreak in five 
to ten years. Trees that grow rapidly usually do not last 
very long; so, if the quick-growing trees are used, slow- 
growing and longer-lived trees should be set among them 
to replace them when they begin to die and break down. 
Some of the common slow-growing, long-lived trees are the 
elm, hard maple, green ash, and several of the evergreens. 

Planning for the Windbreak. — In planning for a wind- 
break it is well to make a sketch of the farm, showing the 



THE FARM HOME 



309 



buildings, lanes, fields drives, yards, etc., and so arrange 
the trees in setting them out as to give protection from the 
north and the west winds. If possible, arrange the trees 
so that the road and other points of interest may be seen 
from the house. 

The windbreak should be far enough from the buildings 




Figure 133. — An evergreen windbreak. 

that snow will not drift about them or into the yards. It 
is well to have it include the garden and orchard as well 
as the buildings. 

Questions: 

1. Of what financial value is a windbreak? 

2. What kinds of trees are best for windbreaks? 

3. For what reasons would you have the shelter belt or wind- 
break a considerable distance from the buildings? 

Arithmetic: 

1. What is the cost of 1,500 willow cuttings at 75c. per thou- 
sand? 

2. What is the cost of 460 spruce seedlings at $5.00 per hundred? 

3. How many trees will be required to set three rows 20 rods 
long — trees 4 ft. apart in the row? 

4. How many willow cuttings will Ibe required to set 3 rows 60 
rods long, cuttings 2 ft. apart in the row? 



310 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



SANITATION 

Healthfulness of the Home. — The first thing to be con- 
sidered about a home is its healthfulness. No matter how 
beautiful, attractive and comfortable a house may be, if 
it is not a healthful place, no one would desire to live in it. 
One who is building a new house may select a site which 
will give drainage, ventilation and plenty of sunshine. One 




Figure 134. — A farm home so situated as to aiford good drainage. Shade trees 
are an excellent addition to a honie, but should not be so close or so thick as 
to prevent a good circulation of air and the entrance of sunshine to the rooms. 

who is buying a farm, expecting to live in the house already 
upon it, would do well to consider the healthfulness of 
the situation as well as the fertility of the soil. Many who 
find themselves in unhealthful homes, may often, with but 
little labor and expense, make the place quite as healthful 
as any they might have selected. 

Drainage about the Home. — The healthfulness of a farm 
home depends first of all upon drainage. The ground should 
slope from the house, so that the cellar and yard may be 
dry. The well should be so situated that no surface water, 
or seepage from house, barn or any other building, can 
possibly get into it. It is of the greatest importance to the 
health of all in the home that the drinking water be kept 



THE FARM HOME 311 

pure. If the natural drainage is not sufficient, a system 
of drainage that would give the desired result should be 
carefully planned and put in. An open ditch could be 
made, but a tile drain is preferable. If it is worth while 
to drain land to produce better crops, it is worth while to 
drain to make the home more healthful. 

Chickens, turkeys or fowls of any kind should not be 
allowed about the well or in the yard immediately surround- 
ing the house. They are not only one more means of carry- 
ing dirt to the house, but they also destroy grass. 

House flies are a great menace to health as weU as to 
comfort. If there is disease in any home in the neighbor- 
hood, flies may carry the germs on their legs and bodies 
and so infect other homes. It is generally beUeved that 
they breed to a great extent in horse manure. For this 
reason, if for no other, manure should not be allowed to 
accumulate in the yards or about the barn. 

Houses should be well screened against flies. Remov- 
able wne screens are the most desirable. While they may 
be a little expensive at first, they last so long that their 
yearly cost is very slight. If taken down in the fall and 
carefully put away for the winter, and then given a coat of 
thin paint before they are put up in the spring, they will 
last almost indefinitely. Where such screens cannot be 
had, mosquito netting may be used. 

Bacteria. — Even when the outside conditions are all 
that they should be, a crusade against dust and germs must 
be kept up within. A few years ago germs and microbes 
were practically unheard of. To-day we hear and read 
much about them, and are just beginning to realize their 
influence. There are a number of terms in common use 
to-day which it may be well to understand. Bacteria are 
very simple, minute organisms belonging to the vegetable 
kingdom. They live in soil and water and on the skin of 
man and beasts. There are hundreds of species of them. 
Some species are helpful — such as cause decay of vegetable 
matter in the soil and so enrich the soil — other species pro- 
duce disease. Many organisms, so small that they can be 
seen only with a microscope, whether animal or vegetable, 
are called germs, microbes and micro-organisms. 



312 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

It is now known that these germs or microbes cause 
many of our contagious diseases, such as tuberculosis (con- 
sumption), diphtheria, and typhoid fever. The mistress of 
a household must remember that she cleans her house, not 
only that it may look well-kept, but more especially to make 
it sanitary. While dust and dirt in themselves may not be 
directly harmful, they are likely to become hotbeds for 
disease germs. 
Questions: 

1. What may often be done to improve unsanitary conditions, 
if they exist? 

2. Why should not fowls be allowed about the house? 

3. What are the objections to house flies, and how may they 
be kept out? 

4. Explain the terms bacteria and germs or microbes. 
Arithmetic: 

1. How many square feet of wire netting are required to make 
a screen for a window 30 in. by 60 in.? What would the screen cost 
at 2c. per square foot? 

2. What is the cost of screen at 2c. per square foot for a door 
3 ft. by 7 ft.? 

3. Screen window frames are usually made of lumber 1 in. thick 
and 2}/2 in- wide. How much lumber is required to make a full size 
screen frame for a window 30 in. by 60 in.? What is the lumber worth 
at $35.00 per thousand feet? 

4. Screen door frames are usually made of lumber l}4, in. thick 
and 3 in. wide. How much lumber is required to make a screen door 
frame 3 ft. by 7 ft.? What is the cost of the lumber at $35.00 per 
thousand feet? 

5. What is the cost of material to make screens for a house having 
3 doors and 14 windows? (Use sizes and prices given above.) 

VENTILATION 

Ventilation is Simple. — People and animals need pure 
and fresh air in order that they may be healthy. Supply- 
ing this fresh air is much simpler, especially in the country, 
than is generally supposed. It is known that air moves 
about easily, and that it presses down, due to its weight, 
upon the earth. If, for any reason, the pressure is not the 
same on all sides, the air will move in the direction of the 
least pressure. Every pupil knows that when a fire is 
lighted in a stove the heated air and smoke will rush up the 
chimney. When air is heated, it expands; hence it becomes 
lighter. This principle may be illustrated by heating a 
bottle so that the air in it will be quite hot. Then place 



THE FARM HOME 



SIC 



your thumb or the pahn of your hand over the top of the 
bottle and allow the bottle to cool. Cooling may be hastened 
by putting the bottle in cold water, keeping your thumb 
or hand firmly over the top. As the bottle and the air it 
contains cool, you will feel a pressure on the back of your 
thumb or hand, which will seem to be sucked into the 
bottle. This fact indicates that, as the air in the bottle 




Figure 135. — Method of ventilating a 
schoolroom when fresh air is taken 
in through the wall near the ceiling. 
Air movement indicated by arrows. 



Figure 136. — Method of ventilating a 
schoolroom when fresh air is taken 
in under the stove, where it is heat- 
ed, then diffused through the room. 
Arrows indicate movement of air. 



cools, it contracts and occupies less space. It is evident, 
then, that cool air occupies less space than warm air. 

How Air Moves. — Because air expands when it becomes 
warm, it is lighter in proportion to its bulk. The air moves 
somewhat as a pair of balances, the heavier end going down 
and the lighter end going up. When some of the air is 
heated and some remains cool, it gets out of balance, and 
the heavier cool air pressing down around the lighter warm 
air forces the warm air upward. Hence, what we call 
draught in the chimney is caused by the heavier cool air 
outside forcing, by its greater weight, the light, warm air 
upward. 

Object of Ventilation. — The problem in ventilation is 
not to remove the warm air from within buildings and let 
in cool air, but to remove foul air and replace it with fresh 
air without causing a draught. Thus the principles explain- 



314 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

ed above must be known and also the fact that foul air is 
heavier than pure air and is usually found near the floor of 
the room. 

Ventilation Flue. — A stove with dampers open is very 
good for taking foul air from a room, as it takes air from 
near the floor. To provide ventilation when stoves are not 
in use, a double flue chimney should be built, with one flue 
opening near the floor to remove the foul air, and the other 
flue to carr}^ the smoke from the stove or furnace. The 
heat in the smoke flue warms the ventilating flue and aids 
in the circulation of air. In this way foul air is removed 
from near the floor, while warm air, which naturally rises 
near the ceiling, is not removed until it becomes foul and 
settles to the floor. 

Fresh Air Supply. — To supply fresh air is very simple 
in rooms heated by the furnace, as the fresh air is brought 
in from outside and heated in passing through the furnace 
into the rooms. In buildings heated with stoves, steam or 
hot water, air must be brought directly to the room from 
outside, and the object is to do this without causing a 
draught of cool air on the occupants of the room. There 
are two good methods of letting fresh air into rooms. The 
first and simpler is to let it in near the ceiling, as shown in 
Figure 135, where it will spread out over the room and 
gradually settle through the warm air, and as it becomes 
foul be drawn out through the stove or ventilating flue 
from near the floor. Another method, one frequently used 
in schools, is to have a sheet iron jacket about the stove. 
Air is let in under the stove, is warmed and rises between 
the stove and jacket to near the ceiling, where it spreads 
out over the room and is drawn from near the floor, as in 
the other case. See Figure 136. 
Questions: 

1. How can you prove that air expands when heated, and is 
Hghter than cool air? 

2. What causes air to move up a chimney? 

3. What is the object of ventilators? 

4. Describe two good methods of getting fresh air into a room. 
Arithmetic: 

1. A man needs 20 cu. ft. of air per hour, how much does he need 
in 8 hours? How much air will two persons need while sleeping in a 
room 8 hours? 



THE FARM HOME 



315 



2. If one needs 20 cu. ft. of air in an hour, how much will 40 
children need in 6 hours? 

3. How many cubic feet of air in a room 10 x 10 and 8 ft. high? 

THE FARMSTEAD 

Arrangement of buildings, windbreaks, shelter belts, 
orchard, garden, yards and lanes is worthy of close study. 
The sketch of a farmstead submitted herewith, Figure 137, 
may be used as a suggestion in working out a plan for any 
farm, though there are probably only a few places where 
it would entirely fit. This plan represents a great deal of 
thought and study and will serve as a guide in planning a 
farmstead anywhere. 

Location. — Other things being equal, it is advisable to 
locate the farmstead along one side of the farm, rather 
than at one corner, because it gets the center of operations 
nearer to all the fields. It is also advantageous to locate 
buildings where there is good drainage; also near a main 

road and near neighbors, and 
where a good pleasant view is 
afforded. 

Size. — Many farmsteads are 

entirely too small. Six acres or 

more are needed for best results, 

so that the buildings may be far 

enough from the windbreak so that 

the snow will not drift about 

them. In the plan submitted, 

eight acres are used. Of this space 

nearly two acres are devoted to a 

windbreak. The house is located 

on a lot in front. This lot is 

Figure 137.— Eight-acre farmstead made Comparatively Small, be- 

i'to«it'ry\ouse.'''rwfteTS cause there is not time enough 

trough. 5 main barn, 6 ma- to Care for a large lawn. At one 

chine shed, 7 hog house, 8 corn- • . « . , , ° , , , , , 

crib. 9 granary. Side 01 the housc aiid ncxt to the 

road a horse or calf paddock is 
provided. This is an open grassy patch that gives breadth 
and a broad view to the place, and makes it distinctly 
different from a city home on a crowded lot. Alfalfa or 
any hay crop may be grown on this plat, and cut for hay, 



S^o^o^'PooGeoooooo 000(000 



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ego 

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C/iTTLC ^c 



HORSE 
PflODOCfTS 



316 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



if one does not like the paddock as planned. On the other 

side of the house is the garden. It is near the house where 

the women can easily get to it for fresh vegetables and 

small fruit. 

Convenience. — The orchard and poultry house are just 

back of the garden, also to accommodate the housekeeper. 

The hog house and yard are farthest away from the house, 

because these are most 
likely to be objection- 
able. The corncrib is 
near the hog house, be- 
cause most of the corn 
is likely to be fed to the 
hogs. It is also near one 
of the cattle yards, con- 
venient to feed to the 
cattle, if desired. Next 
to this is the granary,, 
which is also near the 
main barn, so that grain 
for feeding hogs or the 
stock in the barn may 

I- ,Qo A i«n * .!,« f be near where it will be 

Figure 138. — A loO-acre farm with 8-acre farm- , rpi • i 

stead facing east. Note communication of USeu. i lie main Dam IS 

wfth'smau fields'! '^'"^^ ^^'^^^ ^"^'^ ^°^ y^"^' iicxt and dirccxly in front 

of one of the drives to 
the main highway. This gives the barn a prominent 
place, and makes it convenient in driving to or from the 
barn. 

Saving Steps. — The water trough is placed where the 
stock in the yard can reach it, and also where horses taken 
out at the front of the barn can also be watered without 
going out of or into the cattle yard; that is, it extends on 
both sides of the fence. Beyond the water trough is the 
machine shed. A team will be taken out of the barn, 
watered, hitched to a wagon or machine in the shed, and 
then proceed to the field without going back and forth over 
the same ground, as would be necessary were the machine 
shed on one side of the barn and the water trough on the 
other side. The same saving occurs in coming from the 



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20A. 


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THE FARM HOME 317 

field. The first building reached is the machine shed, 
where the team will be unhitched. They will then stop at 
the water trough on the way to the barn. 

Yards. — The hog yard is also on the side of the farm- 
stead on which the hog pastures lie. See Figure 138. The 
cattle yards connect with the main barn, and likewise with 
the large field. Two yards are provided, so that two dif- 
ferent kinds of stock may be fed during winter, and so one 
may be used during the fall for a stock yard, while the 
other will care for the cattle. This plan will save the trouble 
of having to put an extra fence about the stacks every fall. 

Waste. — While this plan uses about eight acres of space, 
every bit of it is used to good advantage and provides an 
attractive, convenient arrangement for the great amount 
of work necessarily done on a farmstead. 

Questions: 

1. Study Figure 137. Draw from memory a sketch of the farm- 
stead and properly locate buildings, yards, etc. 

2. Give one or more good reasons for the location of the poultry 
house, garden, and orchard, as they are in this plan. 

3. Why is the machine shed placed where it is instead of on the 
other side of the barn? 

Arithmetic: 

1. If one makes three trips each day to the poultry house, how 
much farther will one walk in a year than necessary. If the poultry 
house is 5 rods farther from the house than it should be? 

2. If a man makes five trips each day to a comcrib, how much 
extra traveling will he do in a year, if the corn crop is 2 rods farther 
away than it should be? 

3. If a man takes a team to a water trough six times each day, 
how much does he save in a year, if he saves 2 rods each trip? 
Exercises: 

1. Each pupil should describe what he regards as the most at- 
tractive and well-arranged and sanitary home in the community and 
state reasons. 

2. Show how the schoolhouse is ventilated. Is it properly ven- 
tilated? 

3. Each pupil should make a neat sketch of the home farmstead 
showing buildings, yards, drives, lane, windbreaks, fields, garden and 
orchard. Have class criticize on the arrangements. 



CHAPTER XXIII 
FARM MANAGEMENT 

STANDING OF THE FARMER 

Qualification. — To be a successful farmer one must 
have as much knowledge and ability as a successful mer- 
chant, banker, manufacturer, or any other business man. 
Not long since it was believed that, if one were not intelli- 
gent enough to do anything else, one could farm. This 
belief might have been true, to some extent, many years 
ago, when the land was newly settled, the soil was rich, and 
there was practically no market for anything but wheat, 
so that the chief requirements of a farmer were to plow, to 
sow and to reap. The more able farmers were more success- 
ful than the others, but even the careless and the thought- 
less succeeded fairly well as long as the land was rich and 
free. These crude and careless methods of farming and 
the number of farmers who used little system or good busi- 
ness management caused farming to be regarded as a rather 
inferior calling. 

Conditions Different.— Conditions are now very differ- 
ent. The fertility of the soil is often somewhat depleted, 
so that careful and well-planned systems of cropping, tillage 
and fertiUzation must be employed to secure good crops. 
The price of land has increased until one must pay from 
$5,000.00 to $25,000.00 for a 160-acre farm that at one 
time could be had free. The country is more thickly 
populated, and systems of transportation are better, so 
that nearly any product raised can be marketed. The 
conditions tend to raise the requirements of the farmer. 
He must be wide awake, intelligent and ever on the alert 
for better methods of production. Thus the proper manage- 
ment of a farm demands as high a degree of intelligence as 
is needed in other walks of life, and we now find as strong, 
as intelligent and as well educated men and women on the 
farms as in town. No one is now ashamed to be called a 
farmer. And an intelligent and successful farmer stands as 



FARM MANAGEMENT 319 

well in any community as a successful banker, business or 
professional man. It has been estimated that for the year 
1914 the income of American farmers was ten billion dollars. 
Farming is not only the most important, but the biggest 
business in existence. The farm property of this country is 
valued at $32,500,000,000. 

Home conditions on the farm may now be fully equal to 
those anywhere. Science has discovered the septic tank 
which provides sanitary means for sewage disposal without 
sewers. Modern machinery has made a water supply under 
pressure, Hghting and heating quite as easily secured as in 
the city. Rural telephones, rural mail delivery, parcel post 
and the automobile have brought the country home in as 
close touch with the outside world as the sul)urban home. 
Farm life to-day offers as good opportunities for living, de- 
veloping and enjoying life as are offered in any city. Most 
men of wealth own farms and many are building homes in 
the country to which they hope to retire. 

Bright Men and Women Seek the Farm. — The changed 
conditions are placing more and more bright and progressive 
men and women on our farms, who study agriculture and 
put their best efforts into it. As a consequence, we have 
agricultural schools and colleges, agricultural papers and 
magazines, and are developing a true science of agriculture. 
We no longer depend upon "chance" or "good luck" for 
results in farming, but know the conditions that are neces- 
sary to good results and plan and study to supply these 
conditions. Any boy or girl may well be proud of having 
been born and raised on a farm and educated for the busi- 
ness of farming. 
Questions: 

1. Why did it require less thought and intelligence to farm many 
years ago than it does now? 

2. Why was farming regarded as an inferior occupation? 

3. What has raised farming to as high a degree as any other 
occupation? 

4. What is the result of this good standing for the farmer? 
Arithmetic: 

1. In 1870 A took a 160-acre homestead. The land cost him 
nothing. He built -$300 worth of buildings. He had 4 horses worth 
$75 each, 2 cows worth $30, 2 hogs worth $7.50 each, 20 chickens 
worth 25c. each and $200 worth of machinery. How much had he 



320 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

invested? How large an income must he have gotten to pay 6% 
interest on his investment? 

2. In 1915 A's farm is worth $100 per acre; he has $800 worth 
of horses, $1,000 worth of cattle, $150 worth of hogs, $50 worth of 
poultry, and $1,000 worth of machinery. How much has he invested? 
What income must he receive to pay 6% interest on his investment? 

ROTATION OF CROPS 

Definition. — Rotation of crops means changing the crops 
year after year on a field, so that no field grows the same 
kind of a crop for several years in succession. 

If a field were sown to wheat one year, barley another 
year and clover another, we would say that the crops are 
being rotated on that field. 

Good farmers are practicing more or less some plan of 
crop rotation on their farms, because they have found 
from experience that their fields yield better, if the crops 
are changed about, than when one field raises the same 
kind of crop for several years in succession. 

Larger yields mean larger incomes. Larger incomes 
enable farmers to have better homes, better schools, better 
roads; in short, to live better in every way. We should, 
therefore, be interested in knowing more about conditions 
which have a tendency to increase yields. 

Systematic Rotation. — A still better practice, because it 
usually results in larger yields and more profit, is to rotate 
crops in some regular order, so one may know several years 
in advance what crop will be grown on each field. Such a 
plan of cropping is called a systematic rotation. A very 
simple form of a systematic rotation is to divide the tillable 
land into three fields of about equal size and crop them as 
shown in the following chart: 

Field A. Field B. Field C. 

1st. year Oats. Clover. Corn. 

2nd. year Clover. Corn. Oats. 

3rd. year Corn. Oats. Clover. 

From the above chart one will see that each field has a 
different crop on it each year for three years, but that the 
farm is producing the same crops each year. That is, one 
field is in corn, one in oats and one in clover. Li this rota- 
tion corn always follows clover, oats always follows corn 
and clover always follows oats. If a person is practicing 



FARM MANAGEMENT 321 

such a rotation he can tell, as many years ahead as he wishes, 
to what crop a certain field will be planted. This enables 
him to plan accordingly. He knows how many acres of 
corn, oats and clover he will have each year, and about 
how many bushels or tons he can ordinarily expect. Thus 
he may provide the proper amount of storage room for his 
crops. He will know about how much stock he can keep 
each year, and can have just what machinery he needs. 

Effect on the Soil. — Another advantage gained by fol- 
lowing such a rotation is that each crop leaves the soil in 
good condition for the crop that is to follow. If the corn 
crop is well cultivated, the oats may be sown the following 
spring without plowing the land — simply by disking the 
surface and making a good seed bed. The clover seed is 
sown with the oats, and makes the crop the year after with- 
out extra seeding. Thus three crops are grown and the 
ground is plowed but once. That is, it is plowed for the 
corn, grows the corn crop, then a crop of oats and a crop 
of clover before it is again plowed. 

Rotation also helps to keep fields free from weeds. If 
the corn crop is well cultivated many weed seeds are given 
a favorable chance to grow, then the next cultivation kills 
them. The clover crop, as you remember, is cut in the 
latter part of June, which is earlier than most weeds ripen 
their seeds. The crop is usually cut again for hay or seed, 
so weeds are practically given no chance to ripen seed. 

All these advantages are gained simply by having a 
systematic rotation plan to follow, and without inci^easing 
the amount of work. But it does require a little more 
thought than a haphazard system of cropping. 

Questions: 

1 . What is meant by rotation of crops? 

2. What is meant by a systematic rotation? 

3. Show and explain the cropping of a farm in a simple sys- 
tematic rotation. 

4. What are the advantages of a rotation? 
Arithmetic: 

1. If but one third of the land is plowed each year when cropped 
to a 3-year rotation, how much is saved on a farm, with 90 acres of 
field, if it costs $1.50 per acre to plow? 

2. If it costs $9.50 per acre to raise a crop of hay and $12.02 per 



322 ELEMENT8 OF FARM PRACTICE 

acre to raise a crop of oats, how much less does it cost to raise 30 acres 
of .hay than to raise 30 acres of oats? 

3. If the rotation of crops adds 15 bus. per acre to the corn 
crop, how much will it increase the yield on 35 acres? How much is 
the increased yield of corn worth at 35c. per bushel? 

CLASSIFICATION OF FIELD CROPS 

Three Classes. — There are a great many different sys- 
tems of rotation. Some are good and some are not good, 
and it is well to study a few of the principles, that we may 
easily know whether a certain rotation is likely to give 
good results or not. 

We rotate crops in order to get good yields, hence we 
must know something about the effect of each crop upon 
the soil, so that we may know in what condition the soil 
will be left for the next crop. 

To simplify a study of the general field crops, they may 
all be placed in three classes, grain crops, grass crops and 
cultivated crops, basing the classification on the effect each 
class has on the soil. 

Grain Crops. — Under grain crops we can place wheat, 
oats, barley, flax, speltz, millet and other crops that grow 
but one year from one seeding and are not cultivated while 
they are growing. This class of crops has a comparatively 
small root system, and, as a consequence, very little vege- 
table matter is left in the soil when the crop is removed. 
From the time they are sown until they are ripe is usually 
long enough to allow many of the worst weeds to ripen 
seeds, so these crops have a tendency to make land more 
weedy year after year. Grain crops are likely to be sold 
from the farm, thus removing a large amount of fertility. 

Grass Crops. — Under grass crops we can place timothy, 
bromus, blue grass, redtop and all the common clovers 
and alfalfa. From the standpoint of the botanist, the 
clovers and alfalfa are not grass crops, but for our classifica- 
tion we will regard them as such. Grass crops are principally 
used for hay or pasture. They all grow two or more years, 
and are not cultivated during their growth. They develop 
heavy root systems, and, therefore, add much vegetable 
matter to the soil. Grass crops are usually harvestetl two 
or more times during the year, and each crop grows so 



FARM 3IANAGEMENT 



323 






324 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

quickly that few weeds have a chance to ripen seed. This 
crop is usually fed to stock on the farm, and a large part of 
the fertility removed by the crop is returned in the form 
of manure. 

Cultivated Crops. — Under cultivated crops we can place 
corn, potatoes and root crops; as mangels, beets, etc., or 
any crop planted in rows and cultivated while growing. 
The cultivation destroys many weeds, conserves moisture 
and causes the liberation of plant food; in fact, on very rich 
soil much more plant food is liberated than is used by the 
crop, and much is washed out. On this account cultivated 
crops are much more exhaustive of soil fertility than the 
other classes of crops. The corn and root crops are usually 
largely fed on the farm; hence most of the fertility removed 
by them is returned in the manure produced. 

A Good Rotation will usually include one or more crops 
from each of these three classes. A rotation of wheat, 
barley and clover, is not a very good rotation, because it 
includes no cultivated crop to clear the land of weeds and 
to conserve moisture. A three-year rotation of corn, oats 
and clover, has one crop from each class and is a very good 
rotation for many farms. 

A rotation is usually called a three, four, five, six or 
seven-year rotation, according to the number of crops in- 
cluded in it. 

The kind of rotation suited to any farm must be worked 
out to provide the grain, feed and pasturage needed on the 
farm. It is possible to plan a good rotation for any farm, 
but it requires considerable knowledge and ability to select 
the very best one. To properly manage a farm requires 
as much knowledge, ability and judgment as to properly 
conduct any other business. 
Questions: 

1. What is gained by classifying field crops? 

2. What do you understand by grain crops, and what effect 
do they have on the soil? 

3. What do you understand by grass crops, and what effect do 
they have on the soil? 

,4. What do you understand by cultivated crops, and what 
effect do they have on the soil? 
Arithmetic: 

1. If a bushel of wheat removes 27c. worth of fertility from the 



FARM MANAGEMENT 325 

soil, how much is removed from an acre yielding 20 bus. of wheat? 

2. If a crop of clover yielding 2 tons per acre removes 100 lbs. 
of mineral elements worth 5^c. per pound, what is the value of 
fertility sold in two tons of clover hay? 

3. If a bushel of com removes 14c. worth of fertility from the 
soil, how much is removed from an acre yielding 50 bus.? 

ROTATION MAINTAINS VEGETABLE MATTER 

Worn-out Farms. — One often hears the remark that a 
certain farm is worn out or exhausted. The remark is 
usually based on the fact that the farm in question no 
longer yields good crops. Many farms that formerly yield- 
ed from twenty to thirty bushels of wheat per acre now 
yield but from five to ten bushels. When we consider the 
fact that some of the land in Europe has been cultivated 
for centuries and is still producing large yields, we must 
conclude that it is much better, or that farms in this country 
that are giving such low yields are not exhausted but are 
simply not in good condition. 

Our faith in the latter conclusion is strengthened by the 
fact that most of us know of instances where men have 
taken these run-down farms, and after a few years have 
been able to get as large yields from them as ever. 

From the facts at hand, we must conclude that very 
likely the reason these farms are at present unproductive 
is because conditions are not favorable for the liberation 
of plant food. That is, the plant food may be present, but 
is not soluble so that plants can get it easily. We have 
learned that the most common way in which plant food is 
made soluble is by the decomposition of vegetable matter. 
We may believe, then, that the reason many farms are 
unproductive is because some of the conditions necessary 
for decomposition are lacking. 

Lack Vegetable Matter. — The condition we are most 
likely to find lacking in these unproductive soils is a suffi- 
cient supply of vegetable matter. A good rotation of crops 
provides for maintaining the supply of vegetable matter 
in the soil, because it provides that each field shall grow a 
grass crop one or more years in every three to six years. 
Grass crops have heavy root systems and, therefore, add 
vegetable matter to the soil. 

One can get a good comparison of the amount of vege- 



326 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

table matter added by grain crops, and by grass crops, by 
pulling a few of the stubbles of grain and of clover and 
timothy. One will find that the grain stubble is pulled up 
very easily and that some digging must be done to get 
stubble of any of the grass plants. 

In the simple three-year rotation, corn, grain and clover, 
discussed on page 308 you will see that each field will be 
in clover once every three years. This will add sufficient 
vegetable matter to keep the soil reasonably well supplied 
during the other two years while the corn and grain crops, 
or crops that exhaust the vegetable matter, are growing. 

Cultivated crops, as corn, probably return as much 
vegetable matter to the soil in the roots and stubble as do 
the grain crops, but they use during their growth a great 
deal more than the grain crops, on account of the cultiva- 
tion given them. We have learned that moisture and air 
are essential to decomposition. By the cultivation of these 
crops the soil is loosened on top, so that air can enter freely 
and so that moisture does not rise to the surface to evaporate, 
as it rises in a grain field that is not cultivated while the 
crop is growing. Thus the two essentials to decomposition, 
air and moisture, are maintained. Consequently decomposi- 
tion is more rapid and more of the vegetable matter is 
decomposed. 

A rotation which provides for growing grass on one 
third of the tillable land furnishes a great deal of pasture 
and hay, which usually is an incentive to keep more 
live stock. Hence more manure is produced than is usually 
available on a grain farm. More manure can be applied 
to the fields; and this, too, has a marked effect in keeping 
up the supply of vegetable matter. 
Questions: 

1. What is generally lacking when a soil ceases to be productive? 

2. In what ways does the rotation of crops tend to increase the 
supply of vegetable matter in the soil? 

3. How can you prove that grass crops add more vegetable 
matter to the soil than grain crops? 

Arithmetic: 

1. It costs $13.04 per acre to grow a crop of oats. How nmch 
will it cost to grow 33J-3 acres of oats? 

2. It costs $16.20 per acre to grow a crop of corn. How much 
will it cost to grow 33)^ acres of corn? 



FARM MANAGEMENT 327 

3. It costs $9.50 per acre to grow a crop of mixed hay. How 
much will it cost to grow d3}4 acres of mixed hay? 

4. It costs $13.07 per acre to grow a crop of wheat. How much 
will it cost to grow 100 acress of wheat? 

5. Using the figures given in the preceding examples, how much 
more does it cost to grow 100 acres of wheat than to crop 100 acres 
in a rotation with }4 ^^ corn, 3 ^ in oats and }4 in hay? 

PLANNING FARMS 

Farm and Farmer. — In the last few pages we have 
learned something about the rotation of crops, its effects 
on the soil, and how to tell whether or not a certain rota- 
tion would be likely to keep the soil in good condition and 
give good yields. Before we can plan a suitable rotation 
for any particular farm we must know certain facts about 
the farm and the farmer. 

Sketch of Farm. — We should have a rough sketch of 
the farm in question, showing its shape and size, the loca- 
tion of the farmstead (farmstead includes buildings, yards, 
orchards, garden, drives and lawn), the size and shape of 
the fields and pasture, the fences and lanes and the sloughs 
and waste places. We should know also the kind of soil, 
the location of the farm, the amount and yields of the 
different crops grown, the markets, and the ability and 
desires of the farmer. 

The Farmstead. — The location of the farmstead deter- 
mines the distance each field will be from the base of opera- 
tion, the distance live stock will have to go to pasture on 
the different fields, the amount of lane necessary to reach 
them, and whether or not they must be driven across a 
public road or a railway track. 

The size and shape of the fields will determine the size 
and kinds of machines that may be used and the type of 
farming to be done. If there are only a few small and 
irregular fields, one cannot grow grain to advantage and 
compete with farmers who have large, straight, level fields. 
On the few small fields the farmer would need to grow 
some crop he could care for to advantage with small ma- 
chines, and he would also want to grow some crop that 
would bring in considerable per acre. Five to ten acres 
of grain or corn would not produce an income large enough 
to support a family; but five or ten acres in small fruit or 



328 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



vegetables would insure products of sufficient value to make 
a good income and provide labor for a fair-sized family. 

Fencing. — The amount of fencing on a farm and the 
cost per acre of fencing the various fields are factors which 
would influence one in deciding on the kind and amount of 
live stock to be kept. 

Waste land, or land which for some reason cannot be 
cultivated with the regular fields, must be considered in 





Figure 142. — It costs much more per 
acre to plow a small irregular field 
like the above, than a long field as 
shown in Figure 143. 



Figure 143. — Plowing a long, regular 
field. Compare with Figure 142. 
Which field would you prefer to 
plow? 



planning a rotation. If there is any considerable amount 
of such land that can be used only for hay or pasture, stock 
must be provided to utilize this feed, and very likely a 
smaller proportion of the tillable land would be needed for 
hay and pasture, so that a correspondingly larger acreage 
could be devoted to other crops. 

Soil and location determine the kind of products that 
can be raised and the kinds desirable to raise. One must 
not plan a rotation providing for a large acreage of corn, 
in a community or on a soil not adapted to corn production. 
Likewise it would not be well to plan to raise a heavy bulky 
crop, like potatoes, where one is a long distance from market, 
or to keep dairy stock where facilities are poor for market- 
ing dairy products, or to keep beef stock or hogs where 
grain feed, as corn or barley, is difficult to grow. 



FARM MANAGEMENT 329 

The acreage and yields of the different crops that have 
been grown are good indications of the type of farming 
carried on in the community, the condition of the farm and 
the kind of farming with which the owner is famiUar and 
best adapted to do. 

The abiUty and desires of the farmer are probably the 
most important consideration. If a man does not hke hve 
stock or a certain kind of farming, it is very Ukely that he 
will not succeed with it, though the plan of managing the 
farm might be excellent. Likewise a farmer might have 
ability as a market gardener or in raising horses or sheep, 
but might fail at dairying or general farming. 

Questions: 

1. What are some of the facts we should know about a farm 
to enable us to plan a suitable rotation? 

2. What does the location of the farm determine? 

3. What .should the size and shape of the fields determine? The 
amount of fencing? The waste land? The soil and location? The 
size of the farm and yields? 

Arithmetic: 

1. If one raises 10 acres of wheat yielding 20 bus. per acre, how 
much is the crop worth at 85c. per bushel? - 

2. If one raises 10 acres of potatoes yielding 150 bus. per acre, 
how much is the crop worth at 60c. per bushel? 

3. If one raises 10 acres of onions yielding 400 bus. per acre, how 
much is the crop worth at 60c. per bushel? 

ARRANGEMENT OF FIELDS 

A Map. — If one were to make a map of the average 
farm, showing all the fields as the farm is cropped for one 
year, one would be likely to be surprised at the number of 
fields and their irregular shape. Often a little careful plan- 
ning will result in a great saving of time and labor. 

Fields for a Rotation. — If the rotation of crops is to be 
practiced, the farm must be divided into as many fields as 
there are years in the rotation or rotations. To do this in 
a way to be most economical of fences and to get the fields 
properly located, necessitates a careful study of conditions. 
In arranging the fields of any farm it is desirable to 

(1) Have fields of uniform size. 

(2) Have fields of convenient shape to work. 

(3) Have one end of each field as near to the farm- 

stead as possible. 



330 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



(4) Economize in fencing. 

(5) Make the best use of all parts of the farm. 
Uniform Size. — Fields should be of uniform size to make 

the farming business systematic, so a like amount of various 
crops may be grown each year. This method regulates the 
amount of labor and machinery needed and of live stock that 
may be kept, and makes possible a really systematic arrange- 
ment of the farm business. 

Shape. — As a rule long fields are more desirable than 
square ones, as machines can be used on such fields to better 
advantage, but this suggestion must not be overdone, espe- 
cially if the fields are to be fenced, for long fields require 
more fencing per acre than shorter ones. 

Distance from Farmstead. — A great many trips must be 
made each year to each field and a difference of several 
rods in distance from the farm buildings makes a great 
difference in a year or in a lifetime. Figure 144 illustrates 
a 160-acre farm in Minnesota, (a) as the fields were arranged, 
and (b) as they are planned for a systematic rotation. 
This whole farm is tillable. A study of these two plans 
shows that by the rearrangement of fields there will be a 
saving of 252 rods of fencing, if all fields were to be fenced. 
In the new plan, the fields are of excellent shape to work, 
are all the same size, and the average distance of the fields 

« /60 /-Ot/s ^ , < /so 7f/s " 



^i 


7^ 


40 


/2/f. 


/8^ 


/O/i. 








40 




7^ 






2 777. 


^ 


/5 














20 


28 


72 


■ao 



Q 3o/f 


3o^ 




'a Jo/7 


t Jo 77 





(a.) 



C^ 



Figure 144.— A 160-acre farm, (a) Fields poorly arranged, (b) Fields well ar- 
ranged. Note amount of fencing required to enclose all fields in (a) and com- 
pare with (b). 



FARM MANAGEMENT 



331 



from the farmstead is 24 rods, while in the old plan the 
average distance of the fields is 70 rods. 

Economize in Fencing. — The size and shape of fields 
have much to do with the amount of fencing required to 
enclose an acre. Figure 145. See arithmetic lesson below. 

If one wishes to divide an 80-acre farm into five fields 
of equal size, there is room for study. The proper solution 



•^ 



1^ so r gas y 

/6\/6\/6\/6 /6 



lo 



<. 


80 




- 


26 6 


26 6 


2i>.i 


-40 


4^ 



Figure 145. — An 80-acre farm divided into five fields in three different ways. Fig- 
ure the amount of fencing required to enclose the fields in each case. 

may mean quite a saving in fencing and in operating the 
fields. The three plans, a b, and c, in Figure 145, illustrate 
three ways of dividing an 80-acre farm into five equal sized 
fields. An 80-acre farm is usually 80 rods wide and 160 
rods long. If it is divided as shown in (a), 640 rods of 
fencing would be required for the inside fences. If divided 
as shown in (b), 448 rods would be required, and if divided 
as shown in (c) only 426 rods would be required. 
Questions: 

1. What are the advantages of having fields uniform in size, if 
one practices a rotation of crops? 

2. Can a farm be so divided as to make any difference in the 
average distance of fields from the farmstead? 

3. What effect does the shape of fields have on the amount of 
fencing required per acre to encdo-se them? 

Arithmetic: 

1. How many acres of land in a field 1 rod wide and 160 rods 



332 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



long? How many rods of fencing are required to enclose it? (l60 
square rods in an acre.) 

2. How many acres in a piece of land 16 rods by 10 rods? How 
many rods of fencing are required to enclose it? 

3. How many acres of land in a field 40 rods square? How 
many rods of fencing are required to enclose it? How many rods 
of fencing are required per acre? 

4. How many acres in a field 80 rods square? How many rods 
of fencing are required to enclose it? How many rods of fencing 
per acre? 

A PRACTICAL ROTATION 

Application. — To apply the principles of crop rotation 
and farm planning to an actual farm, we will study one on 

which a good system of 
rotation has been prac- 
ticed for several years. 

The farm we will take 
is a 160-acrefarm, one and 
a half miles from a good 
town. The soil is light, 
sandy loam. The owner 
specializes in growing po- 
tatoes and live stock. He 
is a very careful farmer, 
a study of whose methods 
and farm will be valuable. 
The accompanying 
chart. Figure M6, shows 
the lay of the farm and 
arrangement of the 
fields. Nearly half of the 
farm, the back part, is broken up by a river and bluffs 
so that it is not tillable and can be used only for pasture. 
The remainder, or 90 acres, is all well drained, reasonably 
level and easily worked. 

The Rotation.— The 90 acres of tillable land is divided 
into three 30-acre fields, or rather two 30-acre fields and a 
10 and a 20-acre field. These two smaller fields are farmed 
as though they were only one field; so they make the third 
30-acre field. One field raises grain, one field raises clover 
and one field raises corn and potatoes each year, but no 
field grows the same kind of a crop two years in succession. 





PtKMANenT 








PASTURf 
















^^ 


^ 


eo * 


30 A 




A y 


10 A 








30 A 




'M-OATS 

■«7-ciavcK 

Aivs mAtrtm 
■— ■ conn 


■0*-ClO»eRA(ID(«' 

107 . eO«n AMD 

POTATOe* 
'OS - OATS 


t 


POTATOCS 
"07 -OATS 

'OS-CLOI^e'K ANO 


OATS 
CLOVCl 
POTA- 




PAKM* 












STEAD. 











Figure 146. — A 160-acre farm on which 

three-year rotation has been successfully -j-Kp 
followed for a number of years. 



FARM MANAGEMENT 333 

The Potato Crop. — The chief field crop that is raised 
for sale is potatoes; so the whole farm is planned to give 
good crops of potatoes. The first crop of clover is cut for 
hay. Sometimes the second crop is cut for seed, but more 
often it is plowed under to add plant food for the potato 
crop which is to follow. All the manure made on the farm 
is also applied to the clover land. The clover and manure 
have made the land rich and the clover crop has aided in 
cleaning it of weeds. The potatoes have a clean, rich soil 
in which to grow. 

Com. — Only a part of the clover sod plowed up is planted 
to potatoes. The remainder is planted to corn. The corn 
and potatoes are regarded as one crop in the rotation, since 
they are both cultivated crops and have about the same 
effect on the soil. He gives his corn land the same careful 
preparation that he gives his potato land, and consequently 
gets good crops. 

Oats. — After he has grown his crop of corn and potatoes 
he wishes to seed his land to clover again, because he has 
found that it is the best crop he can raise to put his land 
in good condition for corn and potatoes again; besides, he 
needs the clover hay for his cows. As clover must be sown 
with a grain crop, he seeds this corn and potato land the 
following spring to oats. With oats he sows clover and 
timothy seed for a crop the year after the oats are harvested. 

Clover. — Getting a catch of clover is the key to his 
success as a farmer; so he takes every precaution to be 
sure of a stand. The cultivation given the corn and potatos 
saves moisture, and the manure and clover in the soil give 
up plant food, so that there is more moisture and plant 
food in such land the following year than there would be if 
the field had been pastured or had grown a crop of grain. 
This extra moisture and plant food help to start the clover 
seed sown with the oats the year after the land grows corn 
and potatoes. 

Results. — That this kind of farming pays is shown by 
results. Besides good crops of clover, corn and oats, the 
potato crop on this farm brings from $60.00 to $100.00 per 
acre annually. As it costs about $30.00 per acre to raise 
potatoes, it is plain that there is a profit on these crops. 



334 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

Questions: 

1. What is the rotation practiced on the farm discussed above? 

2. How is the land prepared for potatoes? 

3. What crop follows potatoes and corn in this rotation? 

4. What crop follows the oat crop, and when is it seeded? 
Arithmetic: 

1. If a farmer raises 15 acres of potatoes each year, how many 
bushels will he have, if the yield is 165 bus. per acre? 

2. If Mr. Brown raises 15 acres of corn each year, how many bush- 
els will he have, if the yield is 50 bus. per acre? 

3. If oats yield 48 bus. per acre, how many bushels will 30 acres 
produce? 

A FIVE-TEAR ROTATION 

Rearrangement of a Farm. — A 160-acre farm in south- 
eastern Minnesota, four miles from a good milk market 
was cropped in 1904 as shown in Figure 147. This farmer 
was carrying on general diversified farming, and without 
changing the type of farming in the least, his farm was 
replanned and a systematic rotation of crops arranged 
that would certainly make the farm more attractive, more 
easily worked, and more productive, if put in practice. In 
Figure 147 note the small and irregular fields, the distance 
some of them are from the farmstead, and the lack of system 
in cropping. 

Without materially changing the amount of land de- 
voted to each kind of crop this farm may be rearranged in 
five uniform fields of convenient shape and size (27 acres 
each) and one end of each field be as near to the farmstead 
as is easily possil)le on such a farm. See Figure 148. The 
12-acre field in the southwest corner is too wet to cultivate; 
so it is left as permanent meadow. 

Rotation. — A five-year rotation would be well adapted 
to such a farm, as it would provide about the same amount 
of hay and pasturage as was formerly used. This rotation 
would be corn, grain, meadow and pasture. That is, one 
field would produce corn, two fields would produce grain, 
one would produce hay and one would produce pasture 
each year. The field that grows corn the first year would 
produce grain the second and third years, meadow the 
fourth year, and pasture the fifth year. 

The Grain Crops. — The first grain crop after the corn 
would be sown on the corn land, usually without plowing 



FARM MAXAGEMEXT 



335 



but simply disking it well so as to make a good seed bed. 
After this grain crop was harvested the land ^\•ould be 
plowed in the fall, so that it would have time to settle down 
and become compact by spring. The next spring it would 
be sown to grain a'gain, but, with the grain, grass seed, 
timothy and clover would be sown to make the crop for the 
two years following. 

Meadow. — We have learned that grass crops as meadow 
and pasture are beneficial to the soil, as they clean it of 




Cats 






Oats 
/9 0-* a 




■^ Cftjin >0^ass 



x\ ^^ 



3 0ra.l.n. 
J C/-at.rl h 



i Orut-n yCr 
Qratn, 
aT' a 



Permanent /Veadotti 






J^9rd. \ J-*9ni 



Figure 147. — A 160-acre farm in southeastern Minnesota, cropped in 1904. Com- 
pare witli the reorganization plan in Figure 14S. 

Figure 148. — The lOO-acre farm reorganized for a five-year rotation. Note con- 
venient shape and arrangement of field.s, and that there is little change in the 
acreage of crops grown. The fields are simply arranged better and a systematic 
rotation planned. 

weeds and add vegetable matter. This rotation provides 
lor having each field in grass two years out of five. The 
first year the grass would be cut for hay and the second 
year it would be pastured. 

Pasture. — Pasturing land occasionally, as provided in 
this rotation, is beneficial to the soil, as practically all 
the crop grown during the year is left on the field as manure, 
and the development of the roots adds vegetable matter 
also. Pasturing usually puts land in good condition for 
other crops. One can haul manure upon it during the sunmier, 
when the other fields are growing crops. This manur(> 
plow(Hl under with tiie pasture sod makes a good seed bed 
for com. 



336 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

Com. — In this rotation corn is planted on manured 
pasture sod each year. This is a very desirable place for 
corn, and usually results in good yields. 

Study the accompanying charts and, if possible, draw 
them and put in the crop that would be grown on each field 
each year. The figures 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 indicate the 1st, 
2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th years of the rotation. Each crop is 
produced each year. 

This five-year rotation is a good one for many farms, 
and every farm boy ten years old and over should thoroughly 
understand it and its advantages over no rotation. 

Such a rotation tends to keep the fields clean of weeds, 
productive, and to economize labor. Each field is plowed 
but twice in five years and seeded but three times in the 
five 3'ears. Still it is kept in good condition for the crop 
it is to grow, because the crops are so arranged that each 
crop helps to fit the soil for the one that follows. 
Questions: 

1. What is the five-year rotation described above? 

2. If one had five 20-acre fields cropped to the above 5-year 
rotation, how many acres of grain would one raise each year? How 
many acres of corn? Of pasture? 

.3. In what Avays does the five-year rotation described above aid 
in cleaning the land of weeds? 
Arithmetic: 

1. If a farmer on the above 160-acre farm kept 1.5 cows, 8 two- 
year-olds, 10 yearlings and 12 calves, how many head of cattle would 
he have? 

2. If each cow required 1 acre of pasture for the summer, each 
two-year-old ^4 acre, and each yearling ^ acre, how many acres of 
pasture would be needed? 

3. If each cow required, during the winter, 2i/^ tons of hay, 
each two-year-old 2 tons, each yearling 1 ton, and each calf J^ of a 
ton, how many tons of hay would be needed? 

4. If the 27 acres of rotation meadow produced two tons per 
acre, and the 12 acres of permanent meadow produced 13^ tons per 
acre, how many tons of hay would the farm produce? 

FARM ACCOUNTS 

Bookkeeping. — One of the first essentials of successful 
farm management is a set of accounts that will show which 
enterprises are paying and which are not. To keep a com- 
plete set of liooks for all the enterprises on a farm requires 
considerable time and training, but most any farmer or 



FARM MANAGEMENT 337 

boy or girl can, with little effort, keep a reasonably accurate 
account of one or more of the leading enterprises on his 
own farm. We will not try to give a complete system of 
farm bookkeeping, as too much space and study would be 
required, but we do wish to study with our readers some 
of the problems of farm management affecting a few of the 
more general enterprises of the average farm, and to show 
the application of accounts and figures to farming as a 
business, and the value of their use. 

Enterprises. — Some of the main enterprises on the gen- 
eral farm arc: Horses, Cattle, Sheep, Hogs, Poultry, Fruit, 
Grain, Hay, or, in short, any of the various classes of prod- 
ucts produced. If a farmer keeps only a cash account 
showing the receipts from products sold and the amount 
spent, while he might make a profit on the whole farm, he 
might lose on sheep, hogs or some of the other enterprises, 
and not know it. If he had an account with each enter- 
prise, he would know on which he was losing and on which 
he was making a profit, and could plan his future work so 
as to increase the profitable lines and decrease or improve 
the unprofitable ones. 

The Farmer as a Merchant. — The farmer buys and sells 
products just as truly as the merchant. The way he buys 
most of the products he sells is somewhat complicated. 
He seldom knows, without accounts, just how much any 
particular thing, as a hog or bushel of grain, has cost him. 
The cost of a product of the field to a farmer includes rent 
on land, seed, man and horse labor in preparing th(; land, 
seeding, cultivating, harvesting, machinery cost; also any 
cash expenditure, as for twine, oil or threshing. The cost 
of a live stock product includes labor, feed, shelter, interest 
on investment and depreciation. It is not difficult to keep 
a fairly accurate account of some leading enterprises, and 
it gives a much better grasp of business than can be gotten 
in an}' other way. 

Land Rent. — Land rent is one of the items of cost in 
crop production that must be considered. This cost is 
very evident if one does not own the land, but paj^s rent 
for the use of it. If the farmer owns land himself he must 
charge a fair rent per acre against each crop, because he 



338 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

expects his money invested to be worth a certain, rate of 
interest. That is, he could loan his money at a fair rate 
of interest, if it were not invested in the farm. If he did 
not consider rent as an item of cost against each crop, he 
might apparently make a profit in his farming operations 
while in reality he was losing — that is, growing crops at a 
loss, but making more than wages on his laljor on account 
of the income on his investment. In such case, he had 
better sell his farm and loan his money at 5% or Q% interest. 

Questions: 

1. For what reasons should a farmer keep accounts? 

2. In what way does a farmer l)uy the hogs, milk, etc., that he 
sells from the farm? 

3. Why is land rent one of the items in the cost of production, 
even though a man may own his land? 

Arithmetic: 

1. If a farmer feeds a cow each day for 200 days 25 lljs. of hay 
worth $.5.00 per ton and 6 lbs. of <!;rain worth $20.00 per ton, what is 
the cost for feed for the 200 days? 

2. If pasture for a cow is worth $1.00 per mortth, what is the 
cost of pasturing a cow 165 days? 

3. If J2 hour per day is required to care for a cow during the 
200 days she is kept in the barn, .and 3<4 hour per day for the 165 tlays 
she is pastured, how many hours of lat)or are required to care for a 
cow a year? What is this lal)or worth at 18c. per hour? 

4. What is the total cost of feerl and labor for the cow for the 
year? How many pounds of butter-fat must she give in the year to 
paj' for these items, if butter-fat is worth 30c. per pound? 

LIVE STOCK ACCOUNTS 

Making Work Interesting.— Nearly every farm l)oy, 
while he is attending school, has more or less work with 
the stock at home. This work done mornings and even- 
ings, often under unfavorable conditions, is sometimes un- 
interesting to say the least, though it is as valuable a part 
of one's education as are the things one learns at school. 
.Keeping records with the various classes of stock, so that 
one knows which class is giving the best returns for feed 
and the highest price per hour for labor, adds to the work 
an interest that can be gained in no other way. 

In order to know the profits or losses of an enterprise, 
certain charges must be made and deducted from the value 
of the product. The main charges against live stock are: 
depreciation, interest on investment, feed, labor, shelter. 



FARM MANAGEAIENT 



539 



Depreciation is the difference between the value of any 
property at the beginning and at the end of the period dur- 
ing which an account is kept of it. For example, if, at the 
beginning of a year, one has ten cows worth $400, and at 
the close of the year they are worth less or he has lost or 
sold some, so that the total value of cows on hand is but 
$350, there wUl have been a depreciation in value of $50, 



i^^^r 


fr^^SBfe 




'''-■■^^ .^ ^^Ih 


^>^ci 






1 


mm,- 



Figure 149. — A fine bunch of hogs. The questions one should be able to an.swor 
after producinfi a lot of hogs are: How much did they cost per pound? How 
many pounds of corn or other feed did it take per pound of pork, etc. 

which must be accounted for in the charges against 
the stock. Likewise there may be a gain in the value of the 
stock for a given period. If so, it must be credited to the 
enterprise. This loss or gain is most easily accounted for 
by taking an inventory at the beginning of the year — that 
is, making an estimate of the value of the stock on hand 
and charging the enterprise with this amount, then credit- 
ing the enterprise with the inventory value at the close of 
the year. 

Interest on the investments must also be charged against 
an enterprise, if an accurate knowledge of loss or gain is to 
be had; because, if the money invested in stock were loaned, 
it would earn a certain rate of interest. One would not care 



340 



ELEMENTS OF FAIi3I PRACTICE 



to invest money in stock if one could not get as much in- 
terest on it as if it were invested in some other enterprise. 
A very common rate of interest is 6%. Thus, if one had 
$400 invested in Uve stock for a year, one of the charges 

against the stock would 
be an interest charge of 
$24, as that is the amount 
$400 would earn, if loaned 
at 6%. 

Feed. — The value of 
all feed consumed must 
be charged to the stock. 
This is usually the only 
charge considered, but 
it is evident that the 
other items mentioned 
are as legitimate charges. 
It seems at first thought 
that it would be difficult 
to keep account of the 
amount of feed fed to 
each cow or to all the 
cows, but very little time 
is required to get ap- 
proximately the amount 
fed for a month. If one 
carefully weighs, for a 
few days, the hay and 
grain that are fed, one 
can soon learn to feed 
about the desired amount 
without weighing, but simply by using the same measure 
for grain and giving about the same sized forkful of hay 
or the same number of bundles of fodder. When one 
knows about the amount of feed fed per day, the amount 
fed per month can be ascertained by multiplying it by the 
number of days in the month. 

Labor or any work done in caring for any class of live* 
stock or marketing the product must be charged against 
the enterprise; because, if a man hires labor, he must pay 




Figure 150. — -Weighing hay. If one weighs 
hay a few times when feeding one will soon 
be able to tell approximately how much 
one is feeding without weighing it every 
time. 



FARM MANAGEMENT 311 

for it, or, if he does the work himself, he is entitled to wages. 
With a little thought, one can determine about the amount 
of time required each day to care for any class of live stock; 
and, by multiplying the amount by the number of days in 
the month, can get the amount of work done in the month. 
Cost of shelter is not so easy to determine; yet it is an 
actual cost against the live stock. An easy way to get 
the approximate cost for shelter, is to find out the value 
of the building or part of the building in which the stock 
is kept, then figure 8% of this value as the annual cost of 
shelter. The 8% will allow for interest, insurance, taxes, 
repairs and depreciation. 
Questions: 

1. What will add an interest to caring for stock? 

2. What are the main charges to be made against live stock? 

3. Explain each charge. 
Arithmetic: 

1. On Jan. 1st, 1914, a barn is worth $1,000. On Jan. 1st, 1915, 
it is worth $950. How much has it depreciated in value? How 
long will it last, if it depreciates the same amount each year? 

2. If a $50 cow lives ten years, what is her annual depreciation? 

3. If a barn that shelters 40 head of stock costs $2,000, how 
much is the annual cost of shelter, if one figures 8% on value of barn? 
How much is the annual cost of shelter per animal? 

AN ACCOUNT WITH A COW 

Actual Figures. — To simphfy the account with the 
dairy stock and to illustrate what any boy may do at home 
with some cow he is milking and caring for, we will use a 
record which shows the average results per cow for a year 
in a herd of 14 cows of which an accurate record was kept. 

A Business Statement Showing the Cost and Income of One Cow 
for the Year 1908. Dr. Cr. 

Int. on investment at 6% $ 2.40 

Value of grain fed 10.46 

Value of roughage fed 12.29 

Value of pasturage 5.00 

Cost of labor 23.28 

Cost of shelter 3.20 

Miscellaneous expense 1.50 

Net profit 43 

Income for year $58.56 

$58.56 $58.56 
(Note. — The 43c. net profit was obtained by deducting the sum 
of the seven items of expense, $58.13, from the $58.56 income.) 



342 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



The foregoing is a complete business statement except 
the opening and closing inventory. These were left out to 
simplify the account. To put them in, one would simply 
put in the debit column the value of the cow at the begin- 
ning of the year and in the credit column her value at the 
close of the year. 

Interest on Investment. — To get this item we simply 
assumed the cow to be worth $40.00 and figured 6% on 
this amount. 

Feed. — The cow was fed in the stall for seven months, 
during which time she ate 301 lbs. of farm grain and 442 
lbs. of mill feed, worth $10.46, and 1,496 lbs. of hay and 
3,330 lbs. of fodder, worth $12.29. She was pastured for 
five months and was charged for this at the rate of $1.00 
per month, which is the ordinary charge for pasturing. 

Labor. — The laljor includes all 
time spent in milking and caring 
for the cow and in marketing the 
product. As the milk was shipped, 
it had to be delivered to the sta- 
tion every day, which work re- 
cjuired considerable time for both 
man and team, all of which must 
be accounted for. 

Miscellaneous Expenses. — The 
item for miscellaneous expense is 
the actual wear and tear on dairy 
equipment, cost of medicine, etc. 
Profit. — The net profit appears 
very low; but in reality it is not 
bad at all, since every bit of work 
done and feed fed was, paid for in 
full and a fair rate of interest has 
been paid on money invested in 
the cow and in the buildings. 
There is an additional profit 
to the farm by keeping live stock, as most of the fertilizing 
value of feeds fed is retained on the farm in the form of 
manure. The manure produced by a cow in one year is 
worth several dollars to the farm. 




Figure 151. — Weighing feed. 



FARM MANAGEMENT 343 

The COW also had a calf which is worth something; and, 
had the butter-fat been sold to the creamery instead of 
shipping the whole milk, about 5,000 lbs. of skimmed milk 
would have been available for feed; which is worth, at 15c. 
per hundred pounds, $7.50. 

We hope some of our readers will begin at once to weigh 
the milk produced and feed consumed by some or all of 
their cows. Also, keep a record of the amount of time 
spent in caring for them. It is very interesting to foot up 
such accounts each month and to know whether one is 
making or losing by keeping stock. 

Questions: 

1. What do you understand by the terms Inventory, Deprecia- 
tion, and Profit? 

2. How can you determine the number of hours of labor required 
to care for a cow a year? 

3. What advantages are there in keeping cows besides the profit 
shown in an account similar to the one given above? 

Arithmetic: 

1. If a cow gives 18 lbs. of milk per day, how much will she give 
in 300 days? How much butter-fat does she give each day, if her 
milk tests 4% fat? How much butter-fat will she give in 300 days? 
How much is the butter-fat worth at 30c. per pound? 

2. If a cow is fed each day 4 lbs. of corn worth 56c. per bushel 
(56) lbs.), 2 lbs. of bran worth $25 per ton, 12 lbs. clover hay Avorth 
$5 per ton, and 10 lbs. of fodder corn worth $4 per ton, how much does 
it cost to keep her one day? To keep her 200 days? 

3. How much does it cost to pasture a cow 165 days at $1 per 
month? 

MARKETING DAIRY PRODUCTS 

Item of Expense. — Getting dairy products to market is 
an item often overlooked in considering the cost of produc- 
tion and the profits in dairying. This item is much larger 
than one would believe at first thought. It is, however, 
a necessary item of expense, but often a little consideration 
and planning will greatly reduce the cost and add a corres- 
ponding amount to the profits. 

Making Butter on the Farm. — A few cling to the old 
method of making butter on the farm, and there are prob- 
ably places where it may be necessary to do so ; but, where it can 
be avoided and the cream or milk sold at a reasonable price, 
it is preferable to sell it. In churning by hand, more of 
the butter-fat is lost than when cream is churned in a large 



344 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 




churn at the creamery. Butter makers in creameries do 
nothing but make butter. They make a study of it; and, 
having better facilities than are usually found in the home, 
make a better quality of butter. 

Overrun. — Milk usually contains from 3% to 5% butter- 
fat, and cream from 20% to 40% butter-fat. A pound of 
butter-fat will make more than a pound of butter, because 

butter contains from 12 
to 15% water; also some 
salt and casein. This 
increase in weight is 
called by butter makers 
the overrun. A good 
butter maker with mod- 
ern creamery equipment 
can get an overrun of 
from 18% to 24%. If 
he buys 100 lbs. of but- 
ter-fat he can make from 
118 to 124 lbs. of butter 
from it. It is very sel- 
dom that one can get as large an overrun, when churn- 
ing a small amount of butter on the farm, as can a good 
butter maker in a modern creamery. While a farmer can 
get more pounds of butter by churning his cream himself 
than he had pounds of butter-fat in the cream, yet he can- 
not as a rule get as many pounds of butter as could a 
butter maker by churning the same cream in a modern 
creamery. This fact, together with the fact that home 
dairy butter is not quite so marketable as creamery butter, 
makes it the part of wisdom, on most farms, to sell the 
cream or milk at the local creamery; or, if no creamery is 
convenient, to ship either the milk or the cream, rather 
than to make butter on the farm. 

Exceptions. — There are times when it may be wise to 
make butter on the farm, but at present such conditions 
are exceptional. In deciding which method to follow one 
should not overlook the fact that butter making on the 
farm usually falls to the housekeeper, who, as a rule, has 
too much to do without this unnecessary work. 



Figure 152. — Home manufacture of butter. 



FARM MANAGEMENT 34 K 

Selling Whole Milk or Cream. — The majority of farmers 
now separate their milk, keep the skimmed milk at home 
for their calves and pigs, and sell their cream. A few, 
however, who live within reasonable shipping distances 
from large cities, ship the whole milk to retail dealers who 
retail to the consumers. When milk is shipped in this way- 
it is usually sold by the hundred pounds, and it is often a 
problem to determine which is more profitable — to ship 
whole milk or to sell the cream. A specific problem will 
illustrate how any one must decide which is the better 
method. A farmer living three miles from town, and the 
same distance from a creamery, has ten cows, each giving 
daily 20 pounds of milk testing 4 per cent butter-fat. 

Whole Milk. — If this farmer ships whole milk to the 
city, he must deliver it every day, seven days each week. 
It will take a man and team two hours each day to take 
the milk to the station. This time is worth about 30c. 
per hours. Thus the cost of marketing will be 60c. per day 
or $4.20 per week. 

Cream. — If he separates his milk and sells the cream, 
he wiU need to deliver it but three times a week, which 
labor at 60c. a trip will cost $1.80. He will have to separate 
100 lbs. of milk and wash the separator fourteen times dur- 
ing the week. Allowing half an hour for this, it amounts, 
in a week, to seven hours. Man labor is worth about 15c. 
per hour, which will make the separating cost $1.05. The 
cost for interest, depreciation and repair on the separator 
will be about 25c. per week. Thus the separating and 
delivering will cost $3.10 per week. 

In addition to a saving in the cost of marketing, if the 
cream is sold in place of the whole milk, this farmer will 
have about 1,175 pounds of skimmed milk, which at 15 
cents per hundred is worth $1.76. 
Questions: 

1. What item of expense is often overlooked in the cost of dairy 
products? 

2. Give at least three reasons why it is usually not wise to make 
butter at home. 

3. What do you understand by the creamery man's term "the 
overrun"? 

4. Compare the items of expense in selling whole milk with selling 
cream. 



346 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

Arithmetic: 

1. If a butter maker gets an overrun of 20%, how much butter 
will he make from 986 lbs. of cream? 

2. If a man has 10 cows, each giving 20 lbs. of milk per day, 
how many pounds of milk will he get per day? How many pounds 
of butter-fat will he get, if there are 4 lbs. of fat in each 100 lbs. of milk? 

3. What is the value of 1,175 lbs. of skim milk at 15c. per hun- 
dred poimds? 

CO-OPERATION IN DELIVERING MILK OR CREAM 

Co-operation Reduces Cost. — We have found that the 
farmer who hauled his cream to the creamery three times 
each week spent 6 hours of time for himself and team; 
which, at 30c. per hour, costs him $1.80 per week or $93.60 
per year, simply for marketing the cream from ten cows, 
each giving daily 20 lbs. of milk testing 4% fat. This is 
certainly quite an item, especially at a time when farm help 
is as scarce as it is at present. 

If three such farmers would co-operate in hauling cream, 
so that each would haul but one day each week, the cost 
would be very little more than one third as much as when 
each markets his own cream. There would be a saving 
each year of about $60 per farm or $6 per cow. 

We have found (page 333) that it cost a farmer, with 
ten cows, $4.20 per week or $218.40 per year to market 
whole milk, because he was obliged to go to market every 
day. If three such farmers, living near each other, were 
to co-operate in marketing their milk, about % of this cost, 
or $155, would be saved to each farm; which is over $15 
per cow per year. An increased profit of $15 per cow is 
worth consideration. 

Creamery Company Hauls Cream. — It has been sug- 
gested that instead of each farmer's hauling milk or cream 
to a creamery, the creamery company employ teams to 
haul the cream or milk from all the farms. It would cer- 
tainly seem that there might be a very great saving realized, 
if this suggestion were followed. One man and team thus 
employed could haul all the cream from twenty to sixty 
farms, depending on the condition of roads, distance to 
haul and size of herds. 

Consider. — Spend a few moments figuring on these prob- 
lems as they may apply in your particular locality. If 



FARM MANAGEMENT 347 

j'^ou can answer the following questions, you can figure the 
problems easily: 

How often per week do you deliver milk or cream? 

How much time, on the average, is required? 

How many hours will a man spend in a year to deliver 
your milk or cream? What is the total cost of this labor 
at 15c. per hour? 

How many hours of horse labor will be required in a 
year to deliver your milk or cream? What is the total cost 
of this labor at 8c. per hour per horse? 

These figures will enable you to find the total cost of 
marketing the product of your dairy when you do it 
yourself. Figure, also, what it would cost you, if you were 
to exchange with two or three of your neighbors, so that 
you will have to go but every third or fourth time. 

Still another valuable problem will be to find out how 
many farms could be reached by one team circling around 
so as to reach the greatest possible number of farms and get 
back to the creamery by traveling from 10 to 14 miles. 

To make such a trip one half day's time for man and 
team would be required, at a cost of $1.50 to $2.00. Figure 
whether or not this would be a saving over the common 
practice of each farmer's delivering his own cream. 

Questions: 

1. In what manner are the dairy products of your farm marketed? 

2. Are there two or more of your neighbors Uving near your 
place, so that you might co-operate with them in hauhng your milk 
or cream to the creamery or to the station? 

3. Would it not be practical for the creamery company to em- 
ploy one or more teams to collect milk or cream, instead of having 
each farmer deliver it? 

Arithmetic: 

1. If 100 lbs. of milk were run through a separator and 4 lbs. 
of butter-fat taken out, and with the butter-fat 12 lbs. of milk, how 
many pounds of skimmed milk would be left? (Note. 4 lbs. of 
butter-fat in 12 lbs. of milk would make 16 lbs. of cream testing 25% 
fat, which is about the average for cream.) 

2. If the 4 Uxs. of butter-fat taken from the 100 lbs. of milk 
were sold for 33c. per pountl, and the skimmed milk were worth 15c. 
per hundred, what would l)e the income from the 100 ll)s. of milk? 

3. If it costs 10c. per 100 Ib.s. more to market whole milk than 
to separate and market cream, at what i)rice per 100 lbs. must 4% milk 
be sold to be as profitable as cream at 33c. per pound for butter-fat? 



348 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

Exercises: 

1. Write out the rotations practiced on your farm or on some 
other farm close by. 

2. Of the three classes of crops which one occupies the greater 
acreage in your community this year? 

3. Plan an ideal farmstead with complete arrangements. 

4. Pupils should select one branch of the farm business and be 
allowed to keep an accurate account of all moneys expended and re- 
ceived. 

5. How are the farmers of the vicinity marketing their milk? 
What is done with the by-products? 



Out in the Fields with God. 

The httle cares that fretted me, 

I lost them yesterday 
Among the fields, above the sea, 

Among the winds at play, 
Among the lowing of the herds. 

Among the rusthng of the trees, 
Among the singmg of the birds 

The humming of the bees. 

The foolish fears of what may happen, 

I cast them all away 
Among the clover-scented grass, 

Among the new-mown hay, 
Among the rustling of the corn, 

Where the drowsy poppies nod, 
Where ill thoughts die and good are born. 

Out in the fields with God. 

— Anonymous. 



APPENDIX 



350 ELE ME NTS OF FAR M PRA C TI CE 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 
Soil 
Soils and Soil Fertility, Whitson and Walster. 
First Principles of Soil Fertility, A. Vivian. 
Physics of Agriculture, F. H. King. 

Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture, C. G. Hopkins. 
Soil Management, F. H. King. 
The Soil, A. D. Hall. 
The Soil, F. H. King. 

Soils: TheirPreparation and Management, Lyon, Fippen and Buckman. 
Soils and Plant Life, Cunningham and Lancelot. 

Fertilizers 
Fertilizers and Crops, Van Slyke. 
Manures and Manuring, C. W. Aikman. 
Fertilizers, E. B. Voorhees. 
Manures and Fertilizers, H. J. Wheeler. 

Grains 
Field Crops, Wilson and Warburton. 
Small Grains, M. A. Carleton. 
The Book of Wheat, P. T. Dondlinger. 
Productive Farm Crops, E. G. Montgomery. 
Field Crop Production, G. Livingston. 
Cereals in America, T. F. Hunt. 
Corn Crops, E. G. Montgomery. 
Corn, Bowman and Crossley. 
Farm Crops, C. W. Burkett. 

Grasses and Clovers 
Alfalfa, Wing. 

Grasses and How to Grow Them, Thomas Shaw. 
Clovers and How to Grow Them, Thomas Shaw. 
The Book of Alfalfa, F. D. Colburn. 
Meadows and Pastures, J. E. Wing. 
Text Book of Grasses, A. S. Hitchcock. 
Farm Grasses of United States, W. J. Spillman. 

Forage Crops 
Forage Crops, E. B. Voorhees. 
Forage and Fiber Crops in America, T. F. Hunt. 
Forage Plants, C. W. Piper. 
Forage Crops, Thomas Shaw. 
Grasses and Forage Crops, C. R. Flint. 
Fruit Growing 
Popular Fruit Growing, S. B. Green. 
Productive Orcharding, F. C. Sears. 
Principles of Fruit Growing, L. H. Bailov- 
Bush Fruits, F. W. Card. 
American Apple Orchard, F. A. Waugh. 
Principles and Practice of Pruning, M. J. Kains. 
The Nursery Book, L. H. Bailey. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 351 

Vegetable Growing 

Vegetable Gardening, S. B. Green. 

Garden Farming, L. C. Corbett. 

Garden Making, L. H. Bailey. 

Principles of Vegetable Gardening, L. H. Bailey. 

Productive Vegetable Gardening, J. W. Lloyd. 

Vegetable Gardening, R. L. Watts. 

The Potato, A. W. Gilbert. 

The Potato, Grubb and Guilford. 

The A B C of Potato Culture, T. B. Terry. 

Scientific Potato Culture, A. J. Young. 

Vegetable Forcing, R. L. Watts. 

Insects and Plant Diseases 
Insects Injurious to Vegetables, F. H. Chittenden. 
Manual of Vegetable Gardening Insects, Crosby and Leonard 
Manual of Fruit Diseases, Hester and Wetzel. 
Manual of Fruit Insects, Slingerland and Crosby. 
Insect Pests of Farm, Garden and Orchard, Sanderson. 
Insects Injurious to Fruits, W. Saunders. 
Fungous Diseases of Plants, B. M. Duggar. 
Injurious Insects and Useful Birds, F. L. Washt>urn. 

Farm Animals 
Beginnings in Animal Husbandry, C. S. Pluml). 
Types and Breeds of Farm Animals, C. S. Plumb. 
Judging Farm Animals, C. S. Plumb. 
Judging Live Stock, C. R. Craig. 
Judging Live Stock, C. W. Gay. 
Manual of Farm Animals, M. W. Harper. 
Management and Breeding of Horses, M. W. Harper. 
Productive Horse Husbandry, C. W. Gray. 
Productive Sheep Husbandry, W. C. Coffey. 
Productive Swine Husbandry, George E. Day 
The Hog Book, H. C. Dawson. 
Swine, William Dietrich. 
Swine in America, F. D. Col)urn. 
Sheep Farming in America, Jo.seph E. Wing. 
Sheep Management, Frank Kleinheinz. 
Common Diseases of Farm Animals, R. A. Craig. 

Feeds and Feeding 
Feeds and Feeding, Henry and Morrison. 
Profitable Stock Feeding, H. R. Smith. 
Feeding of Animals, W. H. Jordan. 

Dairying 
Dairy Cattle and Milk Production, C. H. Eckles. 
Dairy Farming, John Michels. 
Dairy Farming, Eckles and Warren. 
Farm Dairy, H. B. Gurler. 

Market Dairying and Milk Products, John Michels 
Milk and Its Products, H. H. Wing. 



352 ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 

Productive Dairying, R. M. Washburn. 
Dairy Laboratory Guide, G. L. Martin. 

Poultry 
Principles and Practice of Poultry Culture, J. H. Robinson. 
Productive Poultry Culture, H. R. Lewis. 
Poultry Production, W. A. Lippincott. 

Miscellaneous 
Farm Boys and Girls, W. A. McKeever. 
How to Live in the Country, E. P. Powell. 
Rural Improvement, F. A. Waugh. 
Work of the Rural School, Eggleston and Briere 
Rural Hygiene, H. W. Ogden. 
School Hygiene, F. B. Dressier. 
Farmer's Law, L. V. Koos. 
Home and Community Hygiene, J. Broadhurst. 
How to Co-operate, Herbert Myrick. 
Poems of Coimtry Life, Collection by G. S. Bryan. 

DIRECTIONS FOR BABCOCK TEST. 
Milk-Testing Outfit. 

2 pipettes with capacity of 17.6 c.c. 1 tin cup with spout 

12 Babcock milk test bottles 1 twelve-bottle tester 

2 skimmed milk test bottles 1 gallon sulphuric acid 

2 acid measures with capacity of 17.5 c.c. 

Where the milk of only one or two cows is to be tested, the four- 
Ijottle tester is sufficient, but the covered twelve-bottle tester is safer 
and its temperature is more easily maintained. 

Mix the milk thoroughly by pouring and fill pipette to the grad- 
uation, holding the finger over the upper opening. 

With the ves.sels at a slant, and releasing the finger, allow all the 
milk to flow into the bottle. It should not l)e warmer than 60-70 degrees 
Fahrenheit. 

Fill the measuring cylinder to the graduation with sulphuric acid 
testing 1.82 (special for this test) and pour into the bottle. 

Shake the mixture vigorously about one minute after all the curd 
has disappeared. The bottle will get hot. Use caution, as the acid 
is corrosive and dangerous. And do not use pipette for acid. 

Place the bottles in the centrifuge, or tester, cover and, after heating 
it on the stove or by adding a few quarts of boiling water, whirl for five 
minutes at the rate of eighty revolutions a minute. If the tester is 
not full, the bottles should be balanced in opposite positions. 

With the tin cup fill the bottles nearly to the base of the neck with 
water that is nearly lioiling hot and whirl again for one minute. 
Fill with hot water to 7 or 8 on the neck and whirl one minute. 

Take the readings at once. Subtract the reading on the scale 
at the bottom of the fat column from the reading at the top of it. 
The difference is the percentage of fat in the milk. 



APPENDIX 



353 



Planting Information for Vegetables 



PLANT 


Soil 


Depth 


Plants 
Apart 


Rows 

Ajjart 


Days to 
Germi- 
nate 


Days to 
Mature 


Cabbage. . 
Cauliflower 
Celery .... 




Rich loam 

Rich loam 

Light rich 

Rich 

Rich sandy 

loam 


3" 
3" 
3" 
3" 

0" 


2' 
2' 
8" 
3" 

3' 


3' 
15" 

3' 




100-110 
105-115 

84 


Onion sets. 
Tomatoes . 




90-100 


SEEDS 






Seeds to 
Foot 








Beans 

Beets 

Carrots 

Celery 

Corn 

Cucumbers . . 

Lettuce 

Onion seeds.. 

Parsley 

Parsnips ... 

Peas 

Radishes. . . . 

Salsify 

Spinach. . . . 

Turnips ... 


Loamy 

Sandy loam. 

Light 

Light rich 

Rich loam 

Rich 

Rich loam 

Good 

Rich loam 

Light 

Light 

Fertile san- 
dy clay 

Light 

Rich sandy 
loam 

Open soil 


2" 
1" 

M" 
VA' 
1" 

H" 

M" 
M" 

J 2" 

1" 
1" 


4 to hill 

10 

6-12 

12 

5 to hill 
4 to hill 

15 
15 

6 
15 

8 
20 

S 

12 
15 


24-30" 

IS" 

15' 

15" 
3' 
6' 

15" 

15" 

18" 

15" 
3' 

IS- 
IS" 

IS- 
IS" 


5-10 

7-10 

12-18 

10-20 

5- 8 
6-10 

6- 8 
7-10 

20-30 

10-20 

6-10 

3- 6 

7-12 

6-10 

4- S 


43- 60 

00- 70 

95-100 

160-175 

55-75 

50-75 

60- 65 

100-110 

98 

125-140 

60- SO 

21- 35 

130-140 

21- 30 
60 



Distances Apart for Planting Fruits 



Trees 



Distance 



Bush or Vine 



Distance 



Apples 30-40 ft. 

Apricots 15-20 ft. 

Cherries 15-25 ft. 

Oranges 25-30 ft. 

Peaches 15-20 ft. 

Pears 20-30 ft. 

Plums 15-20 ft. 

Quinces 10-12 ft. 



Blackberries 4^-7 ft. 

Cranberries 1-2 ft. 

Currants 4-4 J^ ft. 

Gooseberries 4-4 J/^ ft. 

Grapes 6-12 ft. 

Ra.spberries, black 3,^-5 ft. 

Raspberries, red 3^-4 ft. 

Strawberries 1 } 2-3 ft. 



354 



ELEMENTS OF FAR2I PRACTICE 



Haecker's Feeding Standard for the Dairy Cow 



For support of the 1,000-Ib. cow 

To the allowance for support add : 

For each lb. of 3.0 per cent milk 

For each lb. of 3.5 per cent milk 

For each lb. of 4.0 per cent milk 

For each lb. of 4.5 per cent milk 

For each lb. of 5.0 per cent milk 

For each lb. of 5.5 per cent milk 

For each lb. of 6.0 per cent milk 



Daily allowance of digestible 
nutrients 



Crude 


Carbohy- 


Protein 


drates 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


0.7 


7.0 


0.040 


0.19 


0.042 


0.21 


0.047 


0.23 


0.049 


0.26 


0.051 


0.27 


0.054 


0.29 


0.057 


0.31 



Fat 



Lbs. 

0.1 

0.01.-) 
O.OIG 
O.OIS 
0.020 
0.021 
0.022 
0.024 



Quantities of Seed Required to the Acre 



Name Quantity of Seed 



Name 



Quantity of Seed 



Alfalfa 6-12 lbs. 

Alsike 8-20 lbs. 

Barley 13^-2i'2 bu. 

Beans 1-2 bu. 

Blue grass 10-15 lbs. 

Broom corn 1-1/^ bu. 

Buckwheat M-^}i bu. 

Carrots 4-5 lbs. 

Corn 1^-1 bu. 

Flax 1^-2 bu. 

Hemp 1-1 ^^2 bu. 

Millet 1-1 3^2 bu. 



Orchard grass 20-30 lbs. 

Oats 2-4 bu. 

Pansnips 6-8 lbs. 

Peas 2^-31^^ bu. 

Potatoes 5-10 bu. 

Rice 2-21^ lbs. 

Red Clover 10-16 lbs. 

Rye 1-2 bu. 

Timothy 12-24 qts. 

Turnips 2-3 lbs. 

Wheat lM-2bu. 

White Clover 3-4 lbs. 



NUTRIENTS AND FERTILIZERS 



355 



Average Nutrient and Fertilizer 


Values of Some Common Feeds* 




Digestible Nutrients 
in 100 lbs. 


Fertili 

ents 


sing Constitu- 
in 1,000 lbs. 




Crude 
Pro- 
tein 


Carbo- 
hy- 
drates 


Fat 


Nitro- 
gen 


Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 


Potash 


Alfalfa hav 


10.6 
9.0 
7.9 
9.7 
7.6 

10.9 
7.5 
7.7 
6.9 
1.1 

2.2 

33.4 

19.4 

13.1 

30.2 

0.8 

3.3 

3.6 

5.0 

9.7 

1.0 

1.1 

9.9 

30.7 


30.0 
66.8 
36.9 
36.8 
39.3 
38.2 
67.8 
66.1 
69.0 
15.0 

47.8 

24.3 

54.5 

33.7 

43.9 

6.4 

4.9 

5.1 

46.0 

52.1 

42.6 

15.8 

68.4 

22.8 


0.9 
1.6 
1.1 
1.0 
1.8 
0.7 
4.6 
4.6 
3.5 
0.7 

1.0 
7.9 
1.1 
1.0 
4.4 
0.1 
4.3 
0.2 
1.8 
3.8 
0.9 
0.1 
1.2 
14.4 


23.8 
18.4 
20.5 
22.6 
20.5 
23.2 
16.2 
16.6 
14.9 
3.4 

9.4 

63.7 

37.8 

30.9 

56. S 

2.2 

5.6 

6.1 

13.3 

19.8 

5.8 

3.5 

18.9 

58.4 


5.4 
8.5 
7.0 
6.1 
3.9 
6.6 
6.9 
6.8 
6.1 
1.6 

4.5 

26.6 

10.1 

9.6 

5.5 

0.4 

1.9 

2.2 

3.6 

8.1 

2.1 

1.2 

7.3 

13.7 


22.3 


Barley 


7.4 


Clover hay, alsike 

Clover hay, crimson 

Clover hay, red 

Clover hay, sweet, white. . 
Corn, dent 


17.4 
22.4 
16.3 
12.6 
4.0 


Corn, flint 


3.9 


Cornmeal 

Corn silage, mature 

Corn stover (ears removed 

very dry) 

Cotton seed meal, prime. . 
Cowpeas 


3.7 
4.4 

12.9 
18.0 
14.9 


Cowpea hav 


41.3 


Gluten meal . . . 


1.2 


Mangels 


2.2 


Milk, cows, whole 


1.7 


Milk, skimmed 

Millet haj', common 

Oats 


1.7 
21.5 

5.6 


Oat straw 

Potatoes 


15.0 
5.3 


Rve 


5.7 


Sov beans 


24.7 


Sugar beets 




1 imothv hay 


3.0 

9.2 

12.5 

0.8 


42.8 

67.5 

41.6 

4.7 


1.2 
1.5 
3.0 
0.3 


9.9 
19.8 
25.6 

1.6 


3.1 

8.6 

29.5 

1.2 


13.6 


Wheat 


5.3 


Wheat bran 


16.2 


Whey 


2.6 







♦Complied from Feeds and Feeding, by Henry and Morrison. 



The Composition and Amounts of Manure Produced by Different 
Kinds of Farm Animals is Shown in the Following Table: 







Analysis 




Amount per 1,000 
lbs. Live Weight 


Kind of Animal and Kinds of 
Food Fed 


eg 


3 


PhCm 


Q 


a 


it. 


Cattle. Fed hay, silage, beets, 
wheat, bran, cornmeal, cottonseed 


75.25 
48.G9 

59.52 

74.13 


.4:? 
.49 

.77 

.84 


.127 
.114 

4.10 

17 


,44 

.48 

.5",) 
.32 


74.1 

4S.S 

34.1 

83-0 


27,040 
17,812 

12,440 

30,514 


15.0 


Horses. Fed hay, oats, cornmeal. 


10.5 


Sheep. Fed hay, corn, oats or hay, 
wheat bran, cottonseed meal, lin- 


8.7 


Swine. Fed skim milk, cornmeal, 
meat scraps; or cornmeal, wheat 
bran, linseed meal 


17.7 



The data in the above table are taken from the Cornell Experiment Station. 



INDEX 



Acid phosphate, 36 
Accounts: 

With a cow, 341 

With a garden, 135 

With live stock, 33S 
Agricultural engineering, 25!) 
Air: 

Needed in soil, 26 

Plant food in, 13 
Alfalfa: 

Advantages of, 108 

Curing, 1 1 1 

Cutting, 111 

Feeding value of. 109 

Inoculation of, 110 

Pasturing, lOU 

Seed, 109 

Soil for, 110 

Sowing, 110 
Apple blight, 158 
Apples: 

Adaptability of, 151 

Culture of, 152 

Mulching, 153 

Picking, 154 

Planting of trees, 152 

Pruning of trees, 153 

Soil for, 151 

Spraying, 134 

Storage, 165 

Thinning, 154 
Apple scab, 159 
Array worm, 162 
Arsenate of lead, 159 
Ash, 174, 212 
Asparagrie, 139 

Babcoek test, 214 
Bacteria: 

Care against, 311 

In milk, 213 

On clover roots, 104 
Balaneed ration, 175 
Barley: 

Culture ©f, 57 

Harvesting, 57 

Use of, 57 
Barns. 273 
Beans. 141. 
Bedding, 200 
Bees, 25fi 



Birds, 255 
Blue grass, 1 15 
Boll weevil, 163 
Bookkeeping, 336 
Bordeaux mixture, 159 
Boys' and Girls' Club, 2S4 
Breeds: 

Of cattle, 192 

Of horses, 177 

Of poultry, 246 

Of sheep, 216 

Of swine, 229 
llrome grass, 114 
Brood sow, 233 
Buildings: 

Convenience of, 111. 274 

Cost of. 171. 272 

Importance of, 272 

Light. 170 

Maintenance of, 274 

Planning of. 273 

Ventilation of. 170. ISl, 312 
Bull thistle, 130 
Bulletins, 132. 256. 25S 
Burdock, 130 
Butter: 

Making, 343 

Marketing, 295 
Butter-fat, 212, 215 
Cabbage worm, 162 
Calcium: 

Use of in plants, 34 

Supply of, 37 
Canada thistle, 132 
Carbohydrates, 174, 212 
Carbon dioxide, 13 
Carrots, 94 
Cattle: 

Breeds of, 192 

Care and management of, 199 

Classes of, 192 

Disease of, 199 

Feeding of, 201 

Pure-bred. 192 

Shelter for, 199 

Types of. 192 
Celery. 141 
Chickens. 244. 311 
Chinch bugs, 162 
Chlorophyll, 13 
Chores, 166 



35S 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



Churning, 344 
Clay, 11 
Clover: 

Adds nitrogen to soil, 104 

Alsike, 101 

Curing, 100 

Getting a catch of, 102, 333 

In rotation, 333 

Mammoth, 100 

Medium red, 100 

Roots and bacteria, 103 

Varieties of, 100 

White, 101 
Clubs: 

Boys' and Girls', 284 

Farmers', 288 
Cockle, 120 
Codling moth, 162 
Comfort of animals, 236 
Community activities, 272-284 
Concentrates, 174 
Co-operation, 291, 293, 346 
Corn: 

Climate for, 61. 77 

Culture of, 69, 74 

Depth to cultivate, 74 

Embryo of, G.'i 

For silage, 86 

Grading seed, 70 

Importance, 60 

In rotation, 333, 336 

Parts of kernels of, 64 

Planting, 71 

Kag doll tester, 68 

Selection of seed, 76, 79 

Shape of ear, 80 

Size of ear, 80 

Size of kernels, 62 

Smut, 158 

Storing, 81 

Testing seed, 66, 67 

V^arieties of, 78 

Yield of, 60 
Corn hangers, 85 
Corrosive sublimate, 160 
Cot for hogs, 235 
C:"otton: 

Diseases of, 161 

Picking and ginning, 120 

Planting and culture, 120 

Soil for, 120 
County agents, 302 
Cowpea, 117 
Cows: 

Account with, 341 

Culling, 216 

Nutrient requirements for, 201 



Cows; Cont'd 

Rations for, 203 

Succulent feed for, 207 

Testing of, 216 

Types of, 192 et seq. 

Water for, 199 
Cream, 215, 345 
Creamery, 295 
Creep, 235 
Cucumbers, 142 
Cultivated crops. 60, 324, 326 
Cultivation: 

Depth of for corn, 74 

Of apple trees, 152 

Of corn, 69 

Of fiber crops, 120 

Of potatoes, 93 

Of rasplit'rries. 150 

Of strawberries, 147 

Reasons for, 71 

Results of deep, 74 
Cultivator, 75 
Curing hay, 106 
Curled dock, 132 
Cutworms, 162 

Dairy products, 295 
Dandelions, 132 
Digestible nutrients, 175 
Diseases: 

Of cattle, 199 

Of cotton, 161 

Of grains, 50, 56, 156 

Of potatoes, 90, 160 
Disking, 28 
Drainage: 

Of fields, 266 

Of home grounds, 310 

Of roads, 262 

Surface, 267 

Tile, 267 
Drill, 29 
Dry farming, 24 
Drying seed corn, 83 

Educational advantages, 289 
Eggs, 298 
Ensilage, 208 
Eradication of weeds. X'M) 
Ewes, 222, 226 
Exercise for stock, 200 

Farmer, standing of. 3 is 
Farm home, 305 
Farm management, 318 
Farmstead: 

Arrangement of, 315 



INDEX 



359 



Farnistoad: Cont'd 

Location of, 315 

Size of, 315 
Fat, 174 
Feed: 

Change of, 188 _ 

Comparison of, 176 

Composition of, 174,'209 

Fall, 23, 238 

Kinds of, 174 

Requirements, 173 

Selection of, 173 

Source of, 173 

Succulent, 207 

Summer, 241 

Value of, 340, 342 
Fencing: 

Building of, 280 

Cost of, 282, 328, 331 

For sheep, 224 

For swine, 236 

Investment in, 279 

Kinds of, 277 

Posts for, 278 
Fertilizers: 

Animal manure, 37 

Amounts produced, 38 

Complete, 37 

Composition of, 38 

Need of, 31 

Plant food in, 31 

Uses of, 34 
ii'iber crops, 120 
Field crops, 322 
Field peas, 117, 238 
Fields, 327, 329 
Flax: 

Harvesting, 121 

Planting, 121 

Soil for, 121 
Flax wilt, 158 
Flies, 200, 311 
Formaldehyde, 157 
Forage crops, 116 
Garden: 

Account with, 135 

Income from, 134 

Plan and preparation of, 136 

Value of, 134 
Ocrmination, 44, 66 
Grain crops, 39. 322, 334 
Grass crops, 97, 322 
Grasshoppers, 162 
Gravel, 11 

Hay and pasture crops: 
Advantages of, 97 



Hay and pasture crops: Cot'd 

Cleaning crop, 128 

Cock covers for, 107, 112 

Cost, 97 

Curing, 106 

Cutting, 105, 113 

Importance of, 97 
Harrowing, 28 
Harvesting: 

Barley, 57 

Flax, 121 

Oats, 54 

Root crops, 95 

Sugar cane, 119 

Wheat, 48 
Healthfulness of the home, 310 
Heat in the soil, 27 
Hemp: 

Culture of, 121 

Soil for, 121 
Hog cholera, 232 
Hogging off crops, 237, 239 
Hogs. (See swine) 
Home, the, 305 
Honey, 257 
Horses: 

Breeds of, 177 

Care and management of, 181 

Cost of labor of, 182 
• Feeding of, 184 et seq. 

Shoeing. 182 

Types of, 178 
Horse-radisli, 139 
Humus, 10 • 
Hydrogen, 13 

income of American farmers, 319 

Insect pests, 162 

Insects: 

Classes of, 162 

Control of. 162 

Destroyed by plowing, 20 

Habits of, 162 

Kemedies for, 102 
Interest, 339 
Iron sulphate, 132 
Irrigation. 268 

.lolinson grass, 115 

Kernels, 02, ct seq. 
Kinghead, 126 

Labor: 

General, 340 
In dairying, 342 
With sheep, 242 
With swine, 237 



360 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



Land rent, 337 
Lawns, 306 
Legumes, 104 
Lettuce, 140 
Light, 170 
Lime, 34, 37 

Lime-sulpliur mixture, 157 
Live stock: 

Care and management of, 166 

Classes of, 166 

Importance of, 165 

In relation to soil, 165 

Shelter for, 170 

Loam, 1 1 

jSIachinery: 

Investment in, 270 

Shelter for, 271 

Use of, 271 
Mangels, 94 
Manure: 

Amounts produced, 38 

Composition of, 38 
Manure spreader, 92 
Marketing: 

Butter, 295 

Eggs, 298 

Milk, 345 
Meadow, 335 
Melons, 142 
Milk: 

As human food, 212 

Care of, 213 

Composition of, 212 

Sampling, 217 

Selling, 345 

Sterilizing, 212 

Testing, 214, 217, 352 

Weighing, 216, 352 
Millet, 116 

Miscellanous crops, 116 
Moisture, 20, 71 
Morning-glory, 132 
Mulch, 72, 153 
Mules. 166 
Mustard seed, 128 

Nests, 252 
Nitrogen: 

Added to soil, 104 

Need of in plants, 32 

Sources of, 33 
Nodules, 104 
Nutrients, 175, 201 



Oats: 

Cost of production, 5K 

Disease and insects, 58 

Harvesting, 54 

Importance of, 53 

In rotation, 55, 333 

Kinds, 53 

Smut of, 50, 56, 157 

Soil for, 53 

Threshing, 54 

Uses of, 56 
Oils, 174 
Onions, 139 
Orchard, 151 
Orchard grass, 115 
Outside feeding, 169 
Overrun, 344 
Oxygen, 13 
Paris green, 163 
Parsnips, 139 
Pasteurizing milk, 313 
Pasture: 

Alfalfa, 109 

Benefit to soil, 335 

Blue grass, 242 

Brome grass, 114, 242 

Field peas, 242 

Meadow, 97, 335 

Rape, 242 

Red clover, 242 

Rye, 242 

Timothy, 113 

White clover. 242 
Peas, 138, 140 
Phosphate rock, 36 
Phosphorus: 

Need of in plants, 33 

Sources of. 35 
Pigeon grass seed, 128 
Pigweed, 129 
Planning: 

Buildings, 273 

Farms, 327 

Plant food: 

Amount of, 15 

Available, 15 

In fertilizers, 31 

In the air, 13 

In the soil, 13 

Liberated by plowing, 21 

Soluble, 14, 16 
Plant diseases: 

Loss from, 156 

Prevalence of, 156 

Remedies, for, 15S et seq. 



INDEX 



361 



Planting: 

Depth to plant, 29 

Time to plant, 28 

Plant structure, 39 
Plant lice, 162 
Plowing: 

Condition of soil for, 21 

Deep, 24 

Fall, 22 

Objects of, 19 

Time for. 21 
Plum curculio, 162 
Pork production, 231 
Posts, 278 
Potassium: 

Need of in plants, 34 

Sources of, 36 
Potatoes : 

Cultirating, 93 

Cutting seed, 91 

Diseases of, 90, 160 

Importance of, 88 

Planting, 92 

Seed, 89 

Soil for, 91 

Spraying, 93 

Sprouting, 89 
Potato blight, 161 
Potato bugs. 162, 
Potato scab. 160 
Potato wilt, 160 
Poultry: 

Breeds of, 246 

Care of, 248 

Feeding, 253 

Houses, 250 

Imporlance of, 244 
Price of land, 318 
Prizes, 286 
Protein, 174, 212 
Pruning: 

Apple irees, 153 

Raspberry bushes, 150 

Quack grass, 129 

Radish«s, 140 

Rag doll tester, 68 

Ragweed, 126, 132 

Rape, 116, 242 

Raspberries: 

Adaptability of, 148 
CultlTatisB of, 150 
Planting, 149 
Propagation of, 148 
Pruning of, 150 
Soil f»r, 148 



Raspberries: Cont'd 

Varieties of, 148 

Winter protection of, 150 
Ration: 

A good, 206 

A poor, 205 

Feeding a, 205 

To compound a, 203 
Rations. (See feeds, etc.) 
Redtop, 115 
Rent, 337 
Rhizoctonia, 160 
Rhubarb, 139 
Rice, 118 
Roads: 

Construction of, 261 

Cost of, 259 

Earth, 262 

Gravel, 263 

Maintenance of, 264 

Sandy, 266 

Use of, 259 
Roosts, 251 
Root crops: 

Culture of, 94 

Harvesting, 95 

Importance of, 94 
Roots, 13, 17, 18, 74, 209 
Rotation of crops, 99, 163, 

320, 324, 329, 332, 335 
Roughage, 174, 185, 203 
Rust, 50, 56, 156 
Rutabagas, 94 
Rye: 

Culture of, 58 

Importance of, 58 
Rye grass, 115 

Salt, 199 
Sand, 11 
Sanitation: 

In the care of milk, 213 

In the home, 310 
Scale insects, 162 
School gardens, 301 
Schools, 284 
Seed: 

Grading, 44 

Importance of good, 40 

Parts of a, 41 

Pure, 43 

Selection of. 41 

Test of good. 41 

To remove weed, 43 
Seed bed, 26 
Seed corn: 

Selection of, 76 



362 



ELEMENTS OF FARM PRACTICE 



Seed corn: Cont'd 

Storing, 82 

Testing, 61 
Shade, 199 
Shade trees, 307 
Sheep: 

Care and management of, 22:? 

Feeding of, 225 

Fencing for, 224 

For fattening, 225 

Slielter for, 224 

Types of, 220 
Shelter: 

Cost of, 341 

For live stock, 170, 224, 234, 
250 

For machinery, 271 
Shocking: 

Oats, 54 

Wheat, 48 
Silage: 

Corn, 86 

Cutting, 88 
Silo: 

Advantages of, 275 

Cost of, 276 

Importance of, 275 

Kinds of, 276 

Size of, 277 
Slatted shelves, 85 
Smut: 

Corn, 158 

Wheat, 50, 157 

Barley, 156 

Oats, 56, 157 
Social advantages, 288 
Soil moisture, 14 
Soils: 

Classes of, 10 

Clay, 12 

Loam, 11 

Origin of, 9 

Parts of, 9 

Sandy, 12 
Soy bean, 117 
Sow, brood, 233 
Sow thistle, 132 
Split-log drag, 264 
Spraying: 

Fruits, 163 

Potatoes, 93 

Weeds, 132 
Squash, 142 
Squash bugs, 162 
Stacking: 

Oats, 54 

Wheat, 48 



Starch, 174 
Sterilizing milk, 213 
Storing: 

Apples, 155 

Seed corn, 82 

Wheat, 49 
Straw, 36, 55 
Strawberries: 

Adaptability of, 145 

Culture of, 147 

Planting, 147 

Soil for, 145 

Varieties of, 145 
Subsurface packing, 25 
Succulent feed, 207 
Succulent food, 143 
Sugar, 174 
Sugar beets, 94 
Sugar cane, 119 
Surface mulch, 25, 72 
Sweet corn, 141 
Swine: 

Care and management of, 231 

Feeding of, 237 

Fencing for, 236 

Shelter for, 234 

Types of, 229 
System in work, 167 

Teachers, 284 

Testing cows, 216 

Testing milk, 214, 217, 3.52 

Threshing, 49, 54 

Tile, 207 

Tillage: 

Objects of, 19 

Time for, 21 
Timothy: 

Cutting, 113 

Feed value of, 113 
Tobacco extracts, 163 
Tomatoes, 142 
Tuberculosis, 200 
Turnips, 94 

Vegetable matter: 

Adding to soil, 17 

Decay of, 17 
Vegetables: 

Insect pests, 162 

Varieties of, 138 

Marketing of, 139 
Ventilation, 170, 181, 312 
Vetch, 118 

Waste land, 317, 328 
Water for cattle, 169, 199 



INDEX 



363 



Wax, 174 
Weaning pigs, 235 
Weeds : 

Classes of, 129 

Destroyed by plowing, 20, 72 

Habits of, 129 

jNIounting, 124 

Seeds, 43, 125. 127 

Specimens of, 124 

Spraying, 132 

To eradicate annual, 130 

To eradicate biennial, 130 

To eradicate perennial, 132 
Weed seeds, 43, 125, 127 
Wheat: 

Cost of production, 50 

Diseases and insects, 50 

Exports and imports, 49 

Fertilizers, 46 

Grades, 49 

Harvesting, 48 

Importance, 45 

Kinds, 46 

Place of, 45 

Prices, 49 

Rotation, 50 



Wheat: Cont'd 

Seed, 47 
Shocking, 48 
Soil for, 46 
Sowing, 47 
Stacking, 48 
Storing, 49 
Threshing, 49 
Uses, 50 

Wild buckwheat, 127 
Wild oats, 126 
Wild pea, 127 
Windbreaks: 

Planning of, 308 

Trees for, 308 

Value of, 308 
Wool, 220 

Yield: 

Dependent on seed bed, 

Of corn, 60 

Of hay, 97 

Of oats, 53 

Of potatoes, 88 

Of wheat, 45 



Agricultural Text Books 

FOR 

HIGH SCHOOLS 

Published by 

WEBB PUBLISHING CO.. ST. PAUL. MINN. 

FIELD CROPS 

By A. D. WILSON, Sup't of Farmers' Institutes and Extension, 
Minnesota College of Agriculture, and C. W, WAR- 
BURTON, Agronomist, U. S. D. A. 

544 pages, 162 illustrations, cloth, $1 50 net 



This book discusses the peculiarities of each of the various classes 
and varieties of farm crops, the handling of the soil, selections of seed, 
and general crop management. It covers the cereals, including corn, 
■wheat, oats, rye, barley, etc.; forage crops, including hay grasses, clo- 
ver, alfalfa, cowpeas and other legumes; how to make good meadows 
and pastures, and the art of hay making, etc.; root crops; sugar crops; 
fiber crops, including cotton, flax, hemp; tobacco, potatoes, in fact 
every farm crop of any importance is discussed. The introductory 
chapters give the general classification of farm crops and their uses and 
relative importance, and review the subject of how plants grow. The 
concluding chapters di.scuss the theory and practice of crop rotation and 
weeds and their eradication. A list of supplementary references is giv- 
en at the close of each chapter. The style is easy, subject matter well 
arranged and vital, and the book is of excellent mechanical makeup 
throughout. 



AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING 

By J. B. DAVIDSON, Professor of Agricultural Engiaeerkig, 
Iowa State College 

554 pages, 342 illustrations, cloth, $1.50 net. 

A volume intended primarily as a text for secondary schools of agri- 
culture, and for colleges where only a general course can be offered. 
The subjects discussed are so applicable to the every-day work of the 
farm that the book will also prove of great interest and vaJue to those 
engaged in practical agriculture. The following subjects are given space 
according to their importance: Agricultural Surveying, Drainage, Irri- 
gation, Road Construction, Farm Machinery, Farm Motors, Farm 
Structures, Farm Sanitation, and Rope Work. Each chapter is fol- 
lowed by a set of questions for review and for thought promotion. 
Lists of references to best books and bulletins are included. Complete 
index. A splendid text in every detail. 



BEGINNINGS IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 

By CHARLES S. PLUMB, Professor of Animal Husbandry, College 
of Agriculture, Ohio State University. 

395 pages, 217 illustrations, cloth, $1.25 net. 

Beginnings in Animal Husbandry is the only book published that 
is specially designed to meet the needs of students in Animal Husbandry 
courses in secondary schools. Among the subjects discussed are; The 
Importance of Animal Husbandry; Breeds of Horses, Cattle, Sheep 
and Swine; Animal Type and Its Importance; Reasons and Methods 
in Judging Live Stock; Points of the Horse; Judging Horses, Cattle, 
Sheep and Swine, etc.; Heredity: Its Meaning and Influence; Selection 
and Its Importance; Pedigrees and Their Values; Suggestions to Young 
Breeders; Composition of Plants and Animals; Influence of Foods on 
the Body; Feeding Standards, Origin and Use; How to Calculate a 
Ration; Coarse Feeds and Their Values; Concentrated Feeds and Their 
Value; Care of Farm Animals; Poultry: Types and Breeds, Judging, 
Feeding; Eggs and Incubation; Poultry Houses. Topics for discus- 
sion and suggestions for observation and application are included at 
the close of each chapter. 

SOILS AND SOIL FERTILITY 

By A. R. WHITSON, Professor of Soils and Drainage, and H. L. 

WALSTER, Instructor in Soils, of the LTniversity of 

Wisconsin. 



315 pages, well ill ustrated , cloth, $1.25 net. 

No other book on Soils presents the relation of the soil to the 
production of crops in so clear and agreeable a manner as this. There 
are chapters on the following: Conditions Essential to Plant Growth, 
Origin and Classification* of Soils; Primary Relations of Soil and Plant; 
Nitrogen; Phosphorus and Potash; Soil Analysis; Farm Manure; Com- 
mercial Fertilizers; Physical Properties of Soils; Water Supply; Tem- 
perature and Ventilation of Soils; Drainage; Erosion; Tillage; Humus; 
Relation of Crops to Climate and Soil; Soils of the United States; 
Management of Important Types of Soil; Dry Farming. Explicit 
language and the avoidance of technical matter make the book ideal for 
beginners in this subject. A well-chosen set of fundamental labora- 
tory exercises and demonstrations, with complete directions, is included. 

POPULAR FRUIT GROWING 

By SAMUEL B. GREEN, late Professor of Horticulture and Forestry, 
University of Minnesota. 

300 pages, 120 illustrations, cloth, $1.00 

This book covers the factors of successful Fruit Growing, with 
Usts of fruits adapted to each state; Orchard Protection; Injurious 
Insects and Diseases; Spraying; Harvesting and Marketing Methods; 
Propagation of Fruits; etc. A very popular book for schools and col- 
leges. A new, revised edition by Le Roy Cady, Professor of Horticul- 
ture, University of Minnesota, is just out. 



VEGETABLE GARDENING 

By SAMUEL B, GREEN, late Professor of Horticulture and Forestry, 
University of Minnesota. 



252 pages, profusely illustrated, cloth, $1.00, 



A manual on the growing of vegetables for home use and for the 
market. The immense sale of this book to farmers and gardeners, and 
its wide adoption for class-room work in agricultural schools and col- 
leges, prove it to be the standard work published on this subject. This 
is the 12th revised edition. We have a paper covered edition of this 
book which sells for 50c. 



DAIRY LABORATORY GUIDE 

By G. L. MARTIN, Professor of Dairying, North Dakota Agricultural 

College. 



140 pages, illustrated, cloth, 50c. 



This laboratory manual offers a carefully organized series of exer- 
cises covering the principles of modern dairy practice, with sugges- 
tions for their practical application. It covers the Production and Care, 
Testing, Manufacture, and Marketing, of Dairy Products. An indis- 
pensable guide for classes in Dairying and for Creamerymen. 



SILOS: CONSTRUCTION AND SERVICE 

By M.L. KING, formerly Silo Expert, Iowa State College, and Orig- 
inator of the Iowa Silo. 



100 pages, well illustrated, cloth, 50c. 

There is no recent American book on silo building, and none of 
any date that covers the many types of silos now in use and gives 
details of their construction. Mr. King here presents to the intended 
builder the principles of silo construction, and the advantages and dis- 
advantages of each tyi)e; but more particularly he gives the actual 
method of construction, with the main points of silo management. 



RULES OF ORDER FOR EVERY DAY USE 

AND CIVIL GOVERNMENT MADE PLAIN 

By HENRY SLADE GOFF, Author of the Goff'*. Historical Maps. 

113 pages, illustrated, cloth, 50c., 



There has long been a demand for an accurate Rules of Order text 
that was brief yet sufficiently complete for all practical needs. This 
is such a book. The matter is so clear, so well arranged, and so suc- 
cinct that those interested in social centers, clubs, societies, etc., wiJl 
be dehghted with it. The book also presents the main points of civil 
government that everyone ought to know. 



INDUSTRIAL BOOKLETS 

A NEW TYPE OF TEXTBOOK 
By A. E. PICKARD 

CONTENT This new volume contains all the industrial outlines 
found in Rural Education, but a number of new ones 
has been included, introductor}- paragraphs were inserted under each 
title, how to make the booklets is explained, and one of the outlines — 
that on poultry — has been fully expanded and illustrated to serve as 
a model and a stimulus for similar work. 

PURPOSE Industrial Booklets helps the busy teacher to do her work 
and to do it better than she could have done it alone. 
It also saves her hours of search and tedious copying. Art and order 
are included in these exercises. And, while the content of them is 
industrial, the form of them is literary. The fact is that they are 
usually assigned as language work, which the booklet idea has \ital- 
ized by supplying a wealth of interesting material for discussion and 
composition. Different important purposes are, therefore, secured by 
the use of these outlines. 

PRACTICAL There is no more practical method of teaching than 
TEACHING to give pupils such a guide to study and investigation 
and to assemble in orderly fashion the results of. their 
research and conclusion. 

RESULTS The results also are worth the time and effort. Topics 
of \'ital interest are impressed with their bearing on 
modern activities of general concern, and pupils, under proper direc- 
tion, acquire the habit of effective expression. In addition to literary 
improvement and the acquisition of industrial knowledge, the general 
character of the school work is elevated to a new plane. 

COMPETITION The booklets made as suggested become a matter 
of rivalry and pride. They are always subjects of 
exhibit at school and fair and the winning ones usually are given 
prizes. Few things in school make the same appeal or insure so far- 
reaching and satisfactory results. 

The sample booklet prepared by the author contains sufficient 
subject matter and illustration for a brief course in poultrv. 

The whole text is copiously illustrated with reproductions of many 
excellent photographs. 

A copy of Industrial Booklets should be in the hands of every 
pupil. The price is insignificant. The advantages are many and 
marvelous. 

12 mo. Illustrated. Price, postpaid, 40 cents. 

Webb Publishing Company, 
st. p.\ul, minn. 



pilllllllillllllllllllllllllllllil|l|lllltlllllllllll!lllllll!lllllll!lllllllilll!lllllllltllllllllll^^ 

I Rural Education I 

I A. E. PICKARD I 

I AN AID TO PRODUCTIVE TEACHING 1 

1 FOR NORMAL CLASSES, READING CIR- m 

1 CLES, COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS and m 

1 RURAL TEACHERS I 

= Adopted in Several States and Many Counties ^ 

M Industrial subjects are disputing place with academic = 

= even in the rural school. What shall be eliminated? What M 

^ shall be taught? How? With what result? ^ 

1 Rural Education Tells What to Teach g 

^ Aside from the excellent arrangement of the program of p 

M academic subjects and the full treatment of methods for ^ 

M teaching the same, Rural Education presents practical plans M 

M for including the required industrial work, viz: agriculture, ^ 

^ manual training and domestic science. In addition it fully ^ 

^ discusses the outside activities which enlarge the scope of the ^ 

M school and the community life and form a vita! part of real p 

M rural education. ^ 

^ Rural Education Tells How to Teach m 

M The co-ordination and arrangement of all these con- p 

^ flicting courses is a problem which this book solves with M 

M satisfaction and success. Complete instruction is given for ^ 

^ the carrying out of the plans suggested and for the teaching ^ 

= of each subject in detail. In the industrial subjects the actual M 

^ work to be pursued is supplied. ^ 

M Rural Education Increases Teaching Efficiency J 

g The definite outlines and methods which have been ^ 

M thoroly tested and found to be most successful, together with ^ 

M the enlarged outlook and inspiration which come with a view M 

M of new and greater possibilities, tend to increase efficiency in ^ 

M the schoolroom and to direct and elevate all rural life. ^ 

M 12mo., 430 pages. Illustrated. Price, $1.00 net ^ 

1 WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY, | 

= SAINT PAUL, MINN. = 



